MCM304 — Midterm Summary (Lectures 1–22)

📘 Lecture 1 — Evolution of Mass Media

📖 Overview: This foundational lecture traces the historical evolution of mass media from its earliest forms to the emergence of print media in the sub-continent. It explains how rulers initially resisted mass media as a threat to their authority, leading to severe restrictions, and how illiteracy limited media's reach until the 18th century. The lecture also introduces the development of press in British India, including the first Urdu newspaper and repressive press laws.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the origins of print media as the oldest mass medium, the role of the Church as the first influential mass communication platform, resistance from imperial rulers and the last capital punishment for publishing in England (1663). It then moves to the rise of East India Company newspapers in English, the founding of the first Urdu paper Jam-e-Jahanuma in 1822, and the imposition of the Press Act of 1823 (Press & Publication Ordinance) to control local Urdu press.

📝 Lecture Summary

Evolution of Mass Media

The oldest form of mass medium is print media. Historical evidence shows that posters, banners, and pictures were the earliest tools used to convey messages to large groups of people. In the 10th century, the first handmade press was established, and book printing began in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries.

When mass media first emerged, imperialism was in power. Rulers used the Church in Europe as an authoritative platform to control communication. Since the Church was influential and accessible to both people and government, it is often considered the first platform of mass medium.

The emergence of Print Media created fear among rulers, who viewed it as a threat to their rule. They believed people would become aware of their rights and challenge authority. Consequently, many European rulers declared capital punishment for those involved in mass media. In 1663, the last capital punishment in England's history was given to a publisher who printed an anonymous writer's book claiming that rulers are accountable to the masses and that people have the right to overthrow any ruler who does not feel accountable.

🔑 Definition — Capital Punishment: The legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a crime; in this context, the death penalty imposed on publishers for printing content deemed threatening to rulers.

📌 Example: In 1663, a publisher was executed in England for publishing a book by an anonymous author that argued rulers are accountable to the masses and that people have the right to overthrow unaccountable rulers. This was the last capital punishment for publishing in English history.

Print media could not achieve full growth until the 18th century because illiteracy was a major problem in all societies. Most newspapers were read only by the elite class, as the state was not responsible for mass education and elites had the privilege of private tutors.

💡 Why this matters: This historical context shows that access to mass media has always been tied to literacy and power structures, a pattern that continues to influence media consumption and control today.

Emergence of Print Media in the Sub-Continent

In the sub-continent, the East India Company started several newspapers, all published in English and read primarily by company employees. In 1757, when the East India Company conquered Bengal, there were one lakh (100,000) informal educational institutions run either by Hindu Pandits or Muslim Ulamas. Publishing papers entirely in English meant that local educated people were ignored. English papers later appeared in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, where East India Company offices were located. This confirms that these papers were intended solely for Company employees, not for local Indians.

📌 Example: The East India Company published English-language newspapers only in cities where they had offices (Madras, Bombay, Calcutta), excluding the vast majority of educated local Indians who were educated in traditional institutions run by Hindu Pandits or Muslim Ulamas.

The First Urdu Newspaper and Press Laws

In 1822, the first Urdu newspaper named Jam-e-Jahanuma was established. British rulers saw it as a threat and began considering press laws to suppress local Urdu press. Consequently, the Press Act of 1823 was enacted. It made it compulsory for every newspaper to print the name of the Editor, Publisher, and Owner, along with their address, on the first page. This allowed the government to identify and control the authority behind each paper. This law was named the Press & Publication Ordinance (PPO).

🔑 Definition — Press & Publication Ordinance (PPO) 1823: A law making it mandatory for newspapers to display the names and addresses of the Editor, Publisher, and Owner on the first page, enabling government identification and control of press authorities.

The era before the partition of India was extremely difficult for mass communication, as many press owners and editors were punished multiple times under this ordinance.

⭐ Key Takeaways

1. Print media is the oldest mass medium, evolving from posters and banners in ancient times to the handmade press in the 10th century and book printing in 15th-16th century Europe.
2. Rulers historically feared mass media as a threat to their authority, leading to severe punishments including the last capital punishment for publishing in England in 1663.
3. Illiteracy was the main barrier to print media growth until the 18th century, restricting readership to the elite class.
4. In the sub-continent, East India Company newspapers were exclusively in English and served only company employees, deliberately ignoring local educated populations.
5. The first Urdu newspaper Jam-e-Jahanuma (1822) triggered British fears, leading to the Press Act of 1823 (PPO) which required publishers' names and addresses on the first page, suppressing local Urdu press.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the oldest form of mass medium, and what were its earliest tools?
2. Why did European rulers fear the emergence of print media, and what was the last capital punishment for publishing in England?
3. What major problem prevented print media from achieving full growth until the 18th century?
4. What was the name of the first Urdu newspaper in the sub-continent, and in which year was it established?
5. What was the Press Act of 1823 (Press & Publication Ordinance), and what did it require newspapers to display?

📘 Lecture 02 — Emergence & Role of Print Media in the Sub-Continent

📖 Overview: This lecture traces the historical development of print media in the Indian sub-continent, from its simple beginnings to its crucial role in political awakening and the Pakistan Movement. It highlights how newspapers became a tool for unity against colonial oppression and how key figures used the press to educate and mobilize the masses.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the emergence of print media in the sub-continent as a response to democratic ideas and colonial suppression, the reaction of the East India Company to critical newspapers, the impact of the 1857 revolt and subsequent Police Act of 1861, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's reformist use of print media, the rise of militant journalism during World War I, and the significant role of newspapers like Dawn, Jang, Nawa-i-Waqat, and Pakistan Times in the struggle for Pakistan.

📝 Lecture Summary

Emergence & Role of Print Media in the Sub-Continent

The idea that knowledge is a basic right for everyone, central to democratic societies, arrived in the sub-continent. This awareness led people to demand their own press and newspapers. The early print media in the sub-continent was simple, copying the style of English newspapers. There was no concept of headlines, format settings, or catch lines; newspapers were written just in a story form.

💡 Why this matters: The simple beginning of print media created a powerful tool for communication and unity that challenged colonial rule.

The emergence of print media was seen as an ill omen for the East India Company because newspapers began to condemn the Company's brutalities. This created a concept of unity among people from different regions, like Bengal and Lahore, who could now understand the critical situation of Englishmen's atrocities across the country.

🔑 Definition — Ill Omen: a sign of bad luck or a bad outcome to come; used here to describe how the East India Company viewed the new press.

Stance Against East India Company and the 1857 Revolt

The Urdu papers from Lucknow and Delhi adopted a harsh stance against the East India Company, using strong words. This practice continued until the Delhi fall of October 1857, when the Englishmen took control of all of India. A commission appointed by Queen Victoria sent a report on the causes of the revolt, which blamed some Indian papers.

📌 Example: Molvi M. Baqar, who printed the newspaper Sadiq-ul-Akhbar, was given capital punishment (executed) for his role in the rebellion.

Police Act of 1861 and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's Reforms

In 1858, Queen Victoria declared India a colony, and the Police Act of 1861 was introduced for the people, treating them as slaves. This created a sense of inferiority and suppression. In response, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan started a reformation movement. He assured the people that suppression could end by getting modern education and that Muslims were not in a position to afford conflict with the rulers. He also assured the English that the revolt was a collective act by all natives, not just Muslims. Although not a professional journalist, Sir Syed used print media to educate people.

Militant Journalism and the Pakistan Movement

After the abrogation of Bengal Division and events like World War I, Muslims became more aware of their rights. Because the British fought the Turkish Caliphate, whom Indian Muslims sympathized with, the British Government kept a close eye on the Indian press and banned anything against their interests.

Despite punishments, Muslim journalists adopted a bold stance, known as Militant Journalism. Famous names included Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, and Maulana Hasrat Mohani, who continued their work despite harsh laws.

📌 Example: Zimindar, published by Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, faced several bans but continued printing and gained great popularity.

Newspapers in the Struggle for Pakistan

After the Pakistan Resolution, Quaid-e-Azam paid special attention to print media. He published Dawn from Delhi, which was later shifted to Karachi after communal violence. Other publications of the same era included the Urdu daily ‘Manshoor’ and weekly ‘Aaj-Kal’. Meanwhile, Jang started publication from Delhi, and Nawa-i-Waqat from Lahore. ‘Inqalab’, initially representing the Unionist Party in Lahore, began to portray the Muslim League stance after the Pakistan Resolution.

In 1937, the Progressive Papers Ltd started Pakistan Times in Lahore by Mian Iftikhar.

📌 Example: Pakistan Times was a major English-language newspaper that played a vital role in the Pakistan Movement.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The lecture shows that print media was not just a source of news but a powerful weapon against colonial rule in the sub-continent. Its simple beginnings evolved into a force for unity, exposing the brutalities of the East India Company. The period after 1857 saw severe crackdowns, but reformists like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and later militant journalists like Maulana Zafar Ali Khan used the press to educate and mobilize the people despite harsh laws. Finally, newspapers like Dawn, Jang, and Nawa-i-Waqat became crucial instruments for the Pakistan Movement, helping to awaken the masses and create a sense of national identity for an independent homeland.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the initial style of newspapers in the sub-continent, and why was their emergence seen as an "ill omen" by the East India Company?
2. Who was Molvi M. Baqar, and what was the outcome for him and his newspaper after the 1857 revolt?
3. How did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan use print media differently from other journalists of his time?
4. What is "Militant Journalism," and name two famous journalists associated with it.
5. Name at least three newspapers that played a significant role in the Pakistan Movement and identify their publishers or key figures.

Here is the summary of Lecture 3, formatted exactly as requested.

📘 Lecture 3 — Mass Media After Independence & Ayub Khan’s Era

📖 Overview: This lecture covers the precarious and disorganized state of mass media in Pakistan immediately following independence in 1947. It details the challenges of building a media infrastructure, the early innovations in print, and the subsequent clampdown on press freedom under the regime of General Ayub Khan, which included government takeovers of newspapers and news agencies.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by describing the lack of an organized mass communication structure after independence and the grave national problems that hindered media growth, including the state of radio and the migration of newspapers. It then discusses the launch of key publications like Imroz and Kohistan, the latter introducing offset printing. The lecture examines the findings of the 1953 Munir Commission which blamed newspapers for fomenting communal riots, and notes the period of relative media freedom until 1957. However, it shifts to a detailed account of the Ayub Khan era, including the government takeover of Progressive Papers Ltd., the nationalization of news agencies, and the establishment of the National Press Trust which effectively abolished press freedom.

📝 Lecture Summary

After Independence

After independence, Pakistan lacked an organized mass communication structure. The few functional radio stations were ill-equipped; for instance, the Peshawar radio station, built in 1927, was under the agriculture department and mainly used to give instructions to farmers. The print media was also severely affected by the country's grave problems, such as the refugee crisis, lack of infrastructure, and absence of administration. The resulting poor law and order situation hindered the freedom of press, preventing any positive shift from the colonial era. Most newspapers from Delhi shifted to Karachi, while Lahore's papers continued their routine.

Imroz and Kohistan

The publication ‘Imroz’ started in Pakistan and quickly attained a reputable position by assembling a distinguished team of personalities, including Abdullah Malik, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Chragh Hassan Hasrat. In 1953, ‘Kohistan’ was published by novelist Nasim Hijazi in Rawalpindi. This paper introduced a new trend by using the Offset printing method instead of Litho printing. However, a major problem with offset printing at the time was that pictures could not be printed, meaning there was no photo journalism until the arrival of the litho method later. 🔑 Definition — [Offset printing]: A printing method that replaced the older litho method, but initially could not print pictures.

Munir Commission Report and Media Freedom (1953-1957)

In 1953, communal riots between Muslims and Ahmedis led to the formation of a commission of inquiry. The Munir Commission, comprising Justice Munir Ahmed and Justice Kiyyani, published its findings and blamed newspapers for provoking the emotions of the people and inciting the communal riots. Despite this, the period until 1957 is noted for having free media; in the entire country, only 60 cases were registered against newspapers.

Ayub Khan’s Era and the Progressive Papers Ltd. Takeover

In the 1960s, magazines began to be replaced by ‘Digests’, influenced by Western style. Progressive Papers Ltd. was a major publisher of Lail-O-Nehar, Imroze, and Pakistan Times. The literary personalities associated with this group started the Progressive movement in literature. When General M. Ayub Khan took control of the country and imposed Martial Law, this progressive movement became unacceptable to the government. Consequently, the government took over Progressive Papers Ltd.

Nationalization of News Agencies and the National Press Trust

Before the Ayub government’s actions, two independent news agencies, APP (Associated Press of Pakistan) and PPI (Pakistan Press International), were working in the country. The Martial Law government took over these agencies as well. The government also bound international news agencies, preventing them from distributing news and reports directly to radio stations and other newspapers. In effect, the government took a complete hold over all news resources, totally abolishing press freedom. To further secure control, the government established the National Press Trust, taking the stance that it would take over newspapers suffering from financial crises. Gradually, by 1960, this trust had taken over almost 60% of the country's renowned newspapers. 💡 Why this matters: This demonstrates a systematic strategy for state control of information, moving from direct seizure of publishing houses, to controlling the flow of news from agencies, and finally to a state-run trust that could "legitimately" acquire independent papers under financial duress.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The first years after independence were chaotic for media due to national crises like refugee resettlement and a lack of infrastructure. The period from 1947 to 1957 saw some innovation, such as the offset printing method introduced by Kohistan, but also saw the media blamed for inciting riots by the Munir Commission. The Ayub Khan era marked a definitive end to press freedom, starting with the government takeover of Progressive Papers Ltd. for its "progressive" views. The Ayub government also nationalized the two major news agencies (APP and PPI) and controlled international news distribution to ensure total state control. The establishment of the National Press Trust was the final step, enabling the government to effectively own 60% of the country’s major newspapers by 1960.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What were the main problems hindering the development of mass media in Pakistan immediately after independence?
2. What was the key technological innovation introduced by the newspaper Kohistan in 1953, and what was its limitation?
3. According to the lecture, who did the 1953 Munir Commission blame for provoking the communal riots?
4. What were the two independent news agencies taken over by the Ayub regime?
5. What was the stated purpose of the National Press Trust, and what was its actual outcome for press freedom?

📘 Lecture 04 — Role of Pakistani Mass Media in Ayub Khan’s Era

📖 Overview: This lecture examines how the Pakistani mass media functioned during General Ayub Khan's regime (1958-1969). It highlights the government's restrictive press policies, manipulation of advertising and import licenses, and the eventual consequences of suppressing public opinion, which contributed to the regime's downfall.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the reform of press laws in 1961 and 1963, the misuse of the Press Act of 1823 by turning declarations into licenses, the unethical practice of District Magistrates gathering secret information, the government's use of advertising as a tool of pressure, restrictions on importing printing materials, media's role during the 1965 war and the Tashkand Agreement protests, the propaganda campaign "A decade of development" in 1968, and the final consequence of a blind media policy leading to Ayub Khan's resignation.

📝 Lecture Summary

Reform of Press Laws (1961 & 1963)

In 1961, press laws were reformed, but all newspapers strongly condemned that move and demanded the Ayub government revise it. In 1963, the government did revise the laws, but they still lacked much flexibility. The press remained under tight government control despite the revisions.

Misuse of the Press Act of 1823

According to the Press Act of 1823, a declaration was submitted to the government official (Deputy Commissioner), who was not supposed to decline it, as it was not considered a license. However, the Ayub government announced that the Deputy Commissioner had the right to refuse the declaration, so for the first time it was treated as a license. This was a strong check against anti-government newspapers.

🔑 Definition — License: A government permission required to operate a newspaper, which the Deputy Commissioner could now refuse, effectively controlling which newspapers could publish.

Unethical Practice by District Magistrates

District Magistrates started a practice, with government support, of gathering secret information regarding the person who filed the declaration. It became common for the applicant to be blamed on any charge by the Commissioner, who then gave a verdict against him. This was against the ethics of law because the Commissioner was given the right to both blame and make a decision, violating the principle of impartial justice.

Government Use of Advertising as a Tool

Advertising plays a major role in the profit-taking of newspapers, and government sector advertisements are very important for any newspaper. Governments usually use this policy to pressurize newspapers and do not give advertisements to anti-government newspapers. The Ayub government also used this famous tool to manipulate newspapers by withholding government ads from critical press outlets.

💡 Why this matters: This shows how economic pressure can be used to silence dissent without direct censorship.

Restrictions on Import of Printing Material

In Pakistan, almost all printing material is imported, and an import license is required to import these materials. The Ayub government restricted the quantity of import material for anti-government newspapers to pressurize them and to stop their circulation on a large scale. This effectively limited the physical capacity of opposition newspapers to print and distribute.

Media Role During 1965 War and Tashkand Agreement

During the 1965 war, radio, television, and newspapers supported the government's stance, and an unrealistic and exaggerated stance regarding victory in the war was presented to the people. However, when the Tashkand Agreement was signed in January 1966, people protested against it because the government was declaring it a victory, while Tashkand was seen as a humiliation in the eyes of the people. Protests against the government started, and a student died. This helped build a mass movement against the government, which ultimately ended with Gen Ayub Khan's resignation in March 1969. This was a direct result of a wrong media policy that hid facts from the public.

📌 Example: The government falsely portrayed the Tashkand Agreement as a military victory, but the public saw it as a surrender. When reality became known, protests erupted, leading to Ayub Khan's fall.

"A Decade of Development" Celebration (1968)

The government celebrated "A decade of development" in 1968, and radio, television, and newspapers were used as the mouthpiece of the government. This was a propaganda campaign that presented a one-sided, positive view of the regime's achievements.

Mass Media as a Watchdog and the Consequence of Suppression

Mass media is a source by which rulers can understand what people think and what they want, and it plays the role of a watchdog. Media gives direct response to government policies because people are directly affected by those policies. Ayub Khan closed that channel, so the government remained blind to public opinion. This resulted in severe hatred against government policies, which ultimately led to the fall of Ayub Khan.

💡 Why this matters: Suppressing media feedback creates a dangerous gap between rulers and the ruled, leading to political instability.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The Ayub Khan era demonstrates how governments can use multiple tools — licensing laws, secret investigations, advertising control, and import restrictions — to control the press. The government's manipulation of media during the 1965 war and the Tashkand Agreement, by presenting false narratives, backfired when the truth emerged. By closing the media's watchdog function, the regime became blind to growing public anger, which culminated in mass protests and Ayub Khan's resignation. A key lesson is that suppressing media freedom eventually undermines government stability rather than protecting it. The misuse of the Press Act of 1823 to turn declarations into licenses was a critical turning point in press control.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What specific change did Ayub Khan make to the Press Act of 1823 regarding newspaper declarations?
2. How did the government use advertising and import licenses to control anti-government newspapers?
3. What was the public's reaction to the Tashkand Agreement of 1966, and why did it lead to protests?
4. What does the lecture mean by saying the mass media plays a "watchdog" role, and what happened when Ayub Khan closed this channel?
5. List three different methods used by the Ayub government to suppress or manipulate the press.

📘 Lecture 05 — Changes in Mass Media in Ayub’s Era and Its Impacts

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the transformation of Pakistan’s mass media landscape during General Ayub Khan’s martial law regime (1958-1969). It explains how political censorship forced newspapers to innovate by shifting focus to social and cultural content, leading to the rise of supplements, feature writing, and glamorous journalism, while also introducing key sociological concepts like mob, mass, and public.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the challenges faced by newspapers due to the ban on political news, the subsequent emergence of specialized supplements (sports, women, youth, film), the rise of feature writing and glamorous journalism, the decline of periodical journalism and film magazines, the impact of television on newspaper readership and writer payments, the negative trend of official statements replacing objective political news, and a detailed definition of the sociological terms mob, mass, and public in the context of media audiences.

📝 Lecture Summary

Challenges for Newspapers in Ayub’s Era

Newspapers faced a significant challenge during Ayub’s rule because they had been focused on politics since 1857 in the Indo-Pak subcontinent. With the martial law government imposing a ban on all political news, maintaining reader interest became difficult. Newspapers had to find new topics to cover.

Shift Towards Social Life and Supplements

To adapt, newspapers began publishing different supplements such as Sports Supplements, Women Supplement, and Youth Supplement. This shifted the focus from politics to social life. The newspaper ‘Imroz’ was the first to hire a woman reporter and publish articles on women's problems under the title “Khatoon ki Nazar Main.” Following Imroz’s efforts, Mashriq and Kohistan from Lahore also started publishing women's pages.

📌 Example: Imroz's "Khatoon ki Nazar Main" was a pioneering article series focusing specifically on women's issues and problems.

The Rise of Features and Glamorous Journalism

Feature writing gained a new dimension with the printing of features alongside pictures. Some newspapers published film pages and film bulletins, which led to the rise of glamorous journalism. This trend had a negative impact on purely film-based magazines, which gradually disappeared as they lost their leadership. The trend also shifted to weekly and episodic features covering social and cultural aspects.

Impact of Television

The entry of television significantly affected newspaper readership. Previously, poets and writers wrote for newspapers without any financial gain. Television ended this trend by paying them for their writing, so they stopped writing for newspapers, and gradually newspapers lost readership.

Decline of Periodical Journalism

Periodical journalism (dedicated magazines) went into decline because all newspapers started publishing various supplements. This meant that material for different age groups was now available in a single newspaper, reducing the need for separate periodicals.

The Negative Trend of Official Statements

Official statements of government ministers replaced the touch of political news. This not only highlighted government policy but also made newspapers feel more secure by portraying the government’s point of view. The lecture criticizes this as an unhealthy trend in journalism because official statements are subjective while news should be objective. The proper place for subjective opinion is the Editorial page, not the main news sections.

💡 Why this matters: This trend persists in modern Pakistani journalism, where government press releases often dominate news coverage, undermining the objective role of the press.

Understanding the Audience: Mob, Mass, and Public

The lecture concludes by defining three key terms used frequently in mass media: Mob, Mass, and Public.

• Mob is a result of an immediate problem; it disappears when the problem is solved. People in a mob have no link with each other, gather quickly without a plan, and have no resemblance in income, status, or intelligence.
• Mass have the same reaction about likes and dislikes, but this is not a deliberate effort. For example, 1 million people reading the same famous daily is a similarity of liking that happened by chance, not by design.
• Public is a group that emerges after an effort. A newspaper builds opinion, so its audience is called the public. Public opinion is never unanimous and must be expressive and apparent.

🔑 Definition — Public opinion: The opinion of those people who assert their opinion by using different communication techniques; it must be apparent and expressive.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The ban on political news under Ayub Khan forced Pakistani newspapers to innovate, leading to the birth of specialized supplements (women, sports, film) and glamorous journalism, but also to the decline of pure film magazines and periodical journalism. Television’s arrival further hurt newspapers by paying writers who previously contributed for free. A lasting negative outcome was the replacement of objective political news with subjective government official statements, a trend that continues to harm journalistic standards today. Finally, the audience of a newspaper should ideally be a "public" whose opinion is formed deliberatively, not a "mass" that passively consumes government policy.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What specific ban by the martial law government forced newspapers to change their content focus in Ayub’s era?
2. Name the first newspaper to hire a woman reporter and what was the title of its women's article series?
3. Explain why purely film-based magazines disappeared during this period.
4. What was the specific impact of television on the relationship between writers and newspapers?
5. What is the key difference between a "mass" audience and a "public" audience, according to the lecture?

📘 Lecture 6 — Role of Mass Media in General Yahya’s Era and Its Result

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the role of mass media during General Yahya Khan’s presidency (1969-1971) in Pakistan. It critically analyzes how the press failed in its duty to inform the public responsibly during the election campaign and the political crisis that ultimately led to the separation of East Pakistan, becoming Bangladesh. This matters because it highlights the catastrophic consequences when media abandons its journalistic ethics and impartiality during national crises.

🗂️ Topics Covered

General Yahya Khan’s political reforms including revival of parliamentary system and elections; Mushroom growth of newspapers after the Press and Publication Ordinance (PPO) was not enforced; Biased and irresponsible media coverage during the 1970 elections; Launch of party-affiliated newspapers like Musawat, Kohistan, and Jasarat; The lone exception of the newspaper ‘Azad’ in fair reporting; Media’s failure to report growing political anger in East Pakistan; Government’s postponement of the National Assembly session and army action; Role of the language barrier between East and West Pakistan; The ultimate tragedy of separation and Bangladesh’s creation.

📝 Lecture Summary

General Yahya’s Political Reforms and Election Announcement

General Yahya Khan agreed to all demands presented by different sections of society. He revived the parliamentary system, direct elections, trade unions, and student unions. He also broke the One Unit scheme and accepted the right of representation based on population.

The announcement of elections was made in May 1969, with elections scheduled for December 1970. The election campaign immediately changed the environment, and political rivalry started. All sixty-three political parties launched their campaigns. In this charged atmosphere, Mass media did not show a sense of responsibility. Most news reported by papers consisted of politicians blaming each other for being traitors. Newspapers reported rumours, speculations, and predictions that were truly against the spirit of journalism and the universal code of conduct.

Press and Publication Ordinance (PPO) and Mushroom Growth of Newspapers

The Press and Publication Ordinance (PPO) was not used by the Yahya government. As a result, a mushroom growth of newspapers was seen. Many previously banned newspapers started their publications again. They began to give support to politicians without thinking whether it was a healthy move or not. This created a very partial and electrified situation.

National Press Trust and Biased Election Coverage

The National Press Trust, owned by the government, was favouring rightists. Mass media gave the impression that rightist parties would easily win the elections, but the actual election results showed different outcomes. It proved that all mass media did not perform an impartial role in the elections. Awami League in East Pakistan and PPP in West Pakistan won victories, while newspapers had shown that these parties would face defeat. A one-sided stance was presented to the public, who were not mentally ready for that change.

🔑 Definition — One-sided stance: Presenting only one perspective or supporting one political party while ignoring or misrepresenting opposing viewpoints, violating the journalistic principle of impartiality.

In August 1969, Musawat started its publication to represent Pakistan Peoples Party because other newspapers were not giving proper coverage to this party. Similarly, Jamat-i-Islami started two newspapers: ‘Kohistan’ and ‘Jasarat’. Kohistan stopped its publications due to some reasons, while ‘Jasarat’ is still printing from Karachi.

📌 Example: The launch of Musawat (PPP) and Jasarat (Jamat-i-Islami) demonstrates how political parties had to create their own media outlets because existing newspapers were biased and refused to give fair coverage to opposition parties.

The Exception: Newspaper ‘Azad’

There was only one newspaper, ‘Azad’ in West Pakistan, that played a fair role in the elections. It showed that Awami League would win elections in East Pakistan and PPP in West Pakistan. That was the realistic picture of that era.

Media’s Failure to Inform About East Pakistan’s Political Anger

Mass media trains the people, but unfortunately in 1970, Pakistani media failed to inform the people about what changes were coming in the minds of the people of East Pakistan and what was the magnitude of political anger. Therefore, people remained uninformed so they could not pressurize the government to transfer power to Awami League. Ultimately, the government was unable to take the right decisions at the right time.

National Assembly Postponement and Media’s Silence

General Yahya Khan announced that on 3rd March, the introductory session of the National Assembly would be held in Dhaka. Pakistan Peoples Party threatened to boycott the first session unless their demands were entertained. Sixty other independent candidates of West Pakistan also boycotted. General Yahya postponed the session of the National Assembly.

Awami League strongly protested and on 7th March declared a non-cooperation movement. At that time, it was the duty of newspapers to inform people about the entire situation, but they just portrayed the government stance saying, “Everything is fine.”

💡 Why this matters: This shows how media can become a tool of propaganda rather than a watchdog, directly contributing to a national disaster.

Army Action and Separation of East Pakistan

The military government decided army action rather than a dialogue process. Awami League was banned and its leaders were arrested. The constant strike paralyzed government machinery in East Pakistan. An attempt was made to run the Eastern part by sending essential staff members of the state department. Papers remained silent; they neither persuaded people that a political move should be opted, nor did they pressurize the government for dialogue. Ultimately, all military action resulted in the separation of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh.

Language Barrier

The language barrier between East Pakistan and West Pakistan hindered communication between the two wings. Only English was a source of communication, while a lot of population was not able to understand English. The readership of English newspapers was very limited, and Urdu newspapers were not performing their role. Therefore, the tragedy of a lifetime could not be stopped. The lecture concludes that if media was aware of their duties at that time, it might never have happened.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical lesson from this lecture is that mass media’s failure to report impartially and honestly during the 1970 elections—by spreading rumours, supporting certain parties, and suppressing accurate political information—directly contributed to the public being unprepared for the election results. The media’s decision to only parrot the government’s “everything is fine” stance during the East Pakistan crisis, rather than pushing for dialogue or informing citizens of the true situation, enabled the tragic military action that led to the separation of East Pakistan. The creation of party-affiliated newspapers (Musawat, Jasarat) proves that when mainstream media becomes biased, political groups are forced to create alternative channels. The exception of the newspaper ‘Azad’ shows that honest reporting was possible, but it was too isolated to change the outcome. Ultimately, this lecture proves that media’s duty to inform, educate, and hold power accountable is not just an ethical guideline—it can determine the survival or disintegration of a nation.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What political reforms did General Yahya Khan implement that changed the media environment, and how did the removal of the Press and Publication Ordinance (PPO) affect the number of newspapers?
2. Name the three newspapers started by political parties during this era, and state which political party each one represented.
3. Which single newspaper in West Pakistan played a fair and accurate role in predicting the 1970 election results, and what did it correctly forecast?
4. According to the lecture, what was the language barrier problem, and how did it contribute to the communication failure between East and West Pakistan?
5. List three specific ways in which mass media failed in its duty during the East Pakistan crisis that, according to the lecture, could have prevented the separation of Bangladesh.

📘 Lecture 07 — Expected Role of Mass Media in Crisis of 1971

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the failure of mass media in Pakistan during the buildup to the 1971 crisis, which led to the separation of East Pakistan. It highlights how geographic, linguistic, and cultural divides between East and West Pakistan were exacerbated by media's inability to foster consensus. The lecture underscores the critical role media should have played in bridging gaps and informing the public.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the geographical and linguistic divide between East and West Pakistan, the limited reach of newspapers, the absence of cultural and national unity, the language controversy and constitutional issues, economic exploitation, political repression, the military operation and the 1971 war, and the ultimate failure of the press to inform the public, depriving them of their right to know.

📝 Lecture Summary

The Geographical and Linguistic Divide

The geographical borders of East Pakistan and West Pakistan were never joined, with the hostile territory of India separating them. This created a wider gap in understanding between the people of the two wings. There was no effort to develop a collective approach. Even newspapers failed to develop any consensus among the people.

East Pakistanis had Bengali as their local language, which had Sanskrit script and was written left to right. Urdu, widely understood in West Pakistan, was derived from Arabic and Persian and written right to left. The only medium of communication between the two wings was English, understood by a very small number of people. Very few English newspapers were published from both wings, with a low percentage of readers. The famous newspapers were Pakistan Observer from Dhaka, Morning News from Dhaka, Dawn and Pakistan Times from Karachi and Lahore respectively. Their area of influence was very small, so they could never communicate a true feeling among the people.

🔑 Definition — Communication Gap: The lack of a common language and media platform between East and West Pakistan, hindering mutual understanding and national unity.

PIA was the only airline to bridge the gap of two wings, but its fare was not in the reach of a common man. Very few people ever got a chance to interact by visiting the areas.

💡 Why this matters: The physical and linguistic divide directly prevented shared experiences and collective identity, a gap media was expected to fill but failed to address.

National Identity and Lack of Unanimity

National identity is always based on communication, common literature, common culture, and daily aspects of life. These were the areas where East Pakistan and West Pakistan had no unanimity.

The Language Controversy and Media's Stance

Bengalis had many complaints against the rulers since independence. East Pakistan was the biggest province, with 56% of the entire country's population. After independence, Urdu was declared the national language. Bengalis protested, and after 7 years of agitation, Bengali was accepted as the second official language. Pakistani newspapers never talked about that demand. The newspapers never wrote a single article that the Bengali demand was justified. Some West Pakistan newspapers declared that people against Urdu were disloyal. This negative attitude of newspapers further segregated the people. Bengali was an old language, and Urdu was a new language, and it had nothing to do with loyalty.

📌 Example: The pressin West Pakistan labeled Bengali language advocates as "disloyal" instead of reporting on the genuine linguistic and cultural concerns of East Pakistan, widening the rift.

Constitutional Problems and Exploitation

The constitutional problem was also very big because the first constitution was delayed. In 1956, a new constitution was made but proved workable for only 2 years. In 1962, a new constitution came, combining West Pakistan into one unit. Both wings were given equal representation. This was the exploitation of East Pakistan and made them more annoyed. In a federation system, it is never possible that all federating units have uniform population. Usually, a Bicameral System is used: one platform for population representation and the other for equal representation. This policy was delayed in Pakistan, and East Pakistan had to face the greater loss.

🔑 Definition — Bicameral System: A legislative system with two houses; one represents population, the other provides equal representation for federating units, to prevent larger provinces from dominating smaller ones.

Bengalis perceived that all wealth was spent only in West Pakistan. The construction of the new capital (Islamabad) strengthened their perception.

💡 Why this matters: The lack of a bicameral system and unequal representation meant East Pakistan's larger population was under-represented, fueling grievances that media failed to highlight or resolve.

Political Repression and the 1971 War

The most popular political party, Awami League, was banned in 1970, further infuriating East Pakistanis. The decision of a military operation 1000 miles away without any land contact was also not feasible. Gradually, Bengalis started the Mukti Bahni (Liberation Front), supported by India. This made it difficult for an isolated army to win the war of 1971. The army was fighting on two fronts: on the inner front, facing the Liberation Front, and outside, India started war, making things more complicated. Ultimately, Pak Army lost the battle.

🔑 Definition — Mukti Bahni (Liberation Front): The Bengali guerrilla resistance force formed to fight for East Pakistan's independence, supported by India.

Media's Failure and the Right to Know

In all these miserable circumstances, the newspapers never gave a true picture to the people of Pakistan. Pakistanis were deprived of their right to know and ultimately could not use the right to express. By knowing correct information, people can opt for the right stand. Unfortunately, that was denied to Pakistanis. The common man remained unaware until the last moment of the tragedy of East Pakistan. The silence of the press made misery the destiny of the people.

🔑 Definition — Right to Know: The fundamental democratic right of citizens to access accurate information from media, enabling informed decision-making and expression.

📌 Example: The press did not report the scale of Bengali protests, the economic disparities, or the political repression, leaving citizens in both wings uninformed until the final separation.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that the failure of mass media to bridge linguistic, cultural, and political divides between East and West Pakistan directly contributed to the national crisis of 1971. The press did not advocate for Bengali language rights, neglected to expose constitutional and economic exploitation, and failed to inform the public about the growing grievances. This deprivation of the right to know prevented citizens from forming informed opinions and pressuring for peaceful solutions. Ultimately, the silence and bias of the media exacerbated the tragedy, highlighting the media's crucial responsibility in national unity and crisis prevention.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What were the two main languages of East and West Pakistan, and why did they create a communication gap?
2. How did Pakistani newspapers handle the Bengali language demand, and what was the impact?
3. What was the constitutional problem that exploited East Pakistan, and what system should have been used instead?
4. What was the Mukti Bahni, and why did it gain support from India?
5. What was the "right to know," and how did the press's failure to uphold it contribute to the 1971 crisis?

📘 Lecture 08 — Role of Mass Media After the Crisis of 1971

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the critical role of Pakistani mass media following the 1971 separation of East Pakistan. It explains how newspapers and broadcast outlets helped restore national confidence, defended Pakistan's ideology, and supported the country's re-integration into the Islamic world during a period of profound political, economic, and reputational crisis.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the political vacuum and transfer of power to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto after 1971, the role of newspapers in restoring public self-belief, Indian propaganda attacking the Two-Nation theory, economic recovery through foreign aid and nationalization, the 1974 OIC conference in Lahore and its impact on Pakistan's image, the establishment of the Islamic International News Agency (IINA), and Pakistani media's defense of the nuclear program decision in response to India's nuclear tests.

📝 Lecture Summary

LESSON 08 — ROLE OF MASS MEDIA AFTER THE CRISIS OF 1971

After the separation of East Pakistan in 1971, Pakistan faced a pessimistic approach among its people, a severe economic crisis, and a tarnished reputation in the international community. There was a "dead silence" on the political arena because no political leader had the courage to face the public. Consequently, General Yahya handed over the government to the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) — the largest political party in West Pakistan in the 1970 elections. Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took the oath as both President and Martial Law Administrator. The role of newspapers was critical in this era because they encouraged the people and gave them self-belief.

🔑 Definition — Pessimistic approach: a general attitude of hopelessness and lack of confidence in the future, which gripped Pakistan after the 1971 defeat and separation.

During this critical period, Indian mass media began to propagate that the Two-Nation theory had no grounds and had failed badly. Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared, "Two Nation theory is buried now in the Gulf of Bengal." Many people in Pakistan began to think it was the decline of Pakistan Ideology after the fall of Dhaka. However, all Pakistani newspapers splendidly defended Pakistan's stance and assured people that the separation was a political failure — it never meant that the ideology or philosophy of Pakistan was dead.

💡 Why this matters: This shows how mass media served as a bulwark against ideological disintegration, defending the foundational philosophy of the nation when political leadership was paralyzed.

The economic problem was addressed through aid from Libya and Saudi Arabia. Additionally, the nationalization of major industries boosted the confidence of laborers, and land reforms boosted the confidence of farmers.

🔑 Definition — Nationalization: a government policy of taking private industries under state ownership and control, implemented by Bhutto to redistribute economic power and build worker confidence.

The Second Islamic Conference (OIC) was held in 1974 in Lahore and helped revive Pakistan's image among Muslim countries. All 40 member countries of the Islamic Conference participated. Important decisions were taken at a crucial time because, in 1973, Egypt defeated Israel in war, and Arab countries gained confidence for the first time. All OPEC member Muslim countries decided they would not sell oil to friendly countries of Israel — a decision that shook the entire Western world, as oil was their major energy source.

The live telecast of the OIC conference was made, and special programs in many languages were telecasted. Pakistani mass media portrayed the feelings of the Muslim Ummah in a very positive and appreciable way. This was the positive role of Pakistani mass media that helped Pakistan regain its prominent position in the Islamic World.

🔑 Definition — Muslim Ummah: the global community of Muslims, united by faith, which Pakistani media worked to strengthen through its coverage of the OIC conference.

In the 1974 OIC session, Muslim countries decided to establish a news agency named Islamic International News Agency (IINA) . Wealthy Muslim countries like Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Libya promised to provide the major share of funds for this agency.

In 1974, India tested nuclear devices. Z. A. Bhutto declared that Pakistan would also acquire nuclear technology. The bitter history of relations between Pakistan and India compelled Pakistan to take this decision. The Western world did not like this decision because the session of success and unity of Islamic countries made Western countries doubtful about Pakistan's role. Pakistani newspapers published many articles in which they justified the need for nuclear weapons, addressing both the West and the Pakistani masses — arguing that nuclear armaments were essential for Pakistan's security because Pakistan could not face threats like the separation of East Pakistan every day.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical points from this lecture are that Pakistani newspapers played a decisive role in restoring national morale after the 1971 crisis by defending the Two-Nation theory against Indian propaganda. Economic recovery was supported by foreign aid from Libya and Saudi Arabia, plus nationalization and land reforms. The 1974 OIC conference in Lahore was a turning point that revived Pakistan's standing in the Islamic world, with Pakistani mass media providing live multilingual coverage. Muslim countries also established the Islamic International News Agency (IINA) to counter Western media dominance. Finally, Pakistani media strongly justified the nuclear program as essential for national security after India's 1974 nuclear test, despite Western criticism.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the psychological and political state of Pakistan immediately after the separation of East Pakistan in 1971, and how did newspapers respond?
2. How did Indian mass media, including Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, use the 1971 crisis to attack Pakistan's founding ideology, and how did Pakistani media counter this?
3. What three major decisions or events helped restore Pakistan's international standing and revive its economy after the 1971 crisis?
4. Why was the 1974 OIC conference in Lahore significant, and how did Pakistani mass media contribute to its success?
5. What was the name of the Islamic news agency established by Muslim countries during the 1974 OIC session, and which countries funded it?

📘 Lecture 9 — Role of Mass Media in the Era of 1977 to 1988

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the role of mass media in Pakistan during the politically turbulent period from 1977 to 1988, covering the later years of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s rule, the imposition of martial law by General Zia-ul-Haq, and the media’s response to censorship, political movements, and international events like the Afghan War. Understanding this era is crucial for grasping how Pakistani media navigated state control, opposition movements, and geopolitical pressures.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the PPP’s constitutional contributions and media’s role in promoting the 1973 constitution; the Shimla Agreement and media’s clarification of its terms; the 1977 elections and the PNA movement; the imposition of the third martial law by General Zia-ul-Haq; censorship and cancellation of newspaper declarations; the PFUJ movement for press freedom; the launch of MRD for democracy restoration; local bodies elections in 1985; the Iranian Revolution and the Afghan War; and Pakistan’s role in the US-backed jihad against communism, with media support.

📝 Lecture Summary

Role of Mass Media in the Era of 1977 to 1988

The major contribution of PPP rule of 1972 was to develop a unified constitution accepted by all parties in the National Assembly. Pakistan is a federation, which always faces a problem of representation. This problem was solved by introducing a bicameral political system: Parliament was divided into the National Assembly (representation based on population) and the Senate (equal representation for all federating units). This gave confidence to smaller federating units that they would not be exploited by larger population units. In this era, mass media created awareness about the approved constitution and gave people the realization that the new constitution was the best one considering Pakistan’s circumstances — a positive contribution by newspapers.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto also signed the Shimla Agreement with the Indian government, leading to the release of 93,000 Pakistani army prisoners. Indian media started propaganda, giving the impression that the Shimla Agreement recognized the Kashmir Issue as a bilateral issue between Pakistan and India, which could not be raised on any international forum. Pakistani media clarified the vision of the people that no such clause was included in the Shimla Accord, stressing it was the best possible agreement signed.

Elections were held in 1977, and opposition parties formed an alliance called PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) — comprising 8 Pakistani political parties and 1 from Azad Jammu Kashmir. This alliance blamed the government for rigging in elections, and soon this movement became very violent. Mass media in this movement clearly presented the stance of opposition parties — something never seen before in Pakistan’s history. Only Radio, Television, and NPT newspapers presented the government’s point of view, but the rest of the papers felt their role and presented a real picture of the political arena.

On 5th July, Gen Zia ul Haq enforced the 3rd martial law in Pakistan’s history. He promised to play the role of an umpire, hold free and fair elections, and transfer power to the winning party. However, he postponed elections not just after 90 days but several times until 1985, when elections were held on a non-party basis.

During the martial law era, declarations of many newspapers were cancelled. Musawat was the first newspaper targeted by Gen Zia’s aggression, as it was the party newspaper of PPP. In the meanwhile, PFUJ (Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists) started a movement against the censorship policies of Gen Zia and against the cancellation of newspaper declarations.

On 14th March 1983, MRD (Movement for the Restoration of Democracy) was launched. 59 signatories signed a memorandum for the restoration of democracy. Among these signatories, 9 were NPT employees and 1 was a Punjab University professor. All 9 NPT employees were terminated from their services by the martial government and were restored in 1985 under the civil government of Muhammad Khan Junijo.

Local Bodies elections were held in 1985 by Gen Zia’s government, and newspapers projected the importance of these elections in a very forceful way.

In 1978, the communist faction in Afghanistan overthrew the government that was backed by the USSR. The very next year, the Iranian Revolution took place, a religious faction led by Ayatullah Khomeini came to power, and Raza Shah Pehlvi was forced to flee. The new Iranian government openly declared the USA as the open enemy of Iran. This posed a threat to the USA because America feared that through the influence of Afghanistan and an anti-American government, communism could reach the Gulf States and capture their oil resources.

Communist philosophy negates God and provokes a godless society. So Americans declared Muslims as their natural ally and planned to support the Jihadis for a holy war against communism. Pakistan had an important geographical position as its boundaries joined with Iran and Afghanistan, so Pakistan was given a leading role to stop communist influence. Pakistani media favored this holy war against communism. Pakistan was used as a base, and America launched a militant movement in collaboration with Gen Zia ul Haq that ended in 1989.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The 1977-1988 period in Pakistan was defined by martial law, political suppression, and significant media challenges. Mass media both promoted the 1973 constitution and clarified the Shimla Agreement, but under Zia’s rule, newspapers like Musawat faced declaration cancellations, and journalists’ unions like PFUJ resisted censorship. The MRD movement for democracy included NPT employees who were terminated. Internationally, the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to a US-backed jihad against communism, which Pakistani media supported, with Pakistan serving as a base for this movement. For exams, remember the dates and details of the 1977 elections, the 3rd martial law (5th July), the 1983 MRD launch, the 1985 local bodies elections, and the media’s role in the Afghan War.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. Which was the first newspaper targeted by Gen Zia ul Haq’s government, and why?
2. What was the composition of the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) formed in 1977?
3. On what date was the MRD (Movement for the Restoration of Democracy) launched, and how many NPT employees were among the signatories?
4. How did Pakistani media clarify the terms of the Shimla Agreement regarding the Kashmir issue?
5. What was the key reason the USA declared Muslims as their natural ally during the Afghan War period, and what role did Pakistani media play?

📘 Lecture 10 — Role of Mass Media in the Era of 1977 to 1988

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the complex role of mass media in Pakistan during the Zia-ul-Haq era (1977–1988), a period shaped by the Afghan Crisis and Iranian Revolution. It explores how media became aligned with state policy, particularly in supporting the Afghan Jihad, while failing to address rising sectarianism and extremism. The lecture critically analyzes how newspapers abandoned their social responsibility role during this authoritarian phase.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the international political events (Afghan Crisis, Iranian Revolution) that impacted Pakistan, General Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization agenda, the three demands Pakistan made to the USA for playing a role in the Afghan crisis, media's full support for Mujahideen and Jihadi groups, the consequences of this coverage including sectarian violence and religious extremism, newspapers' avoidance of sensitive religious topics, and the failure of Pakistani media to fulfill social responsibility theory.

📝 Lecture Summary

The Changes in International Political Arena (1979)

Two major international events—the Afghan Crisis and the Iranian Revolution—directly affected Pakistan. The country's geographical location made it a center of attention for super powers. Internally, General Zia-ul-Haq was trying to islamicize the country. Mass media working in Pakistan faced difficulties because ideal media functioning is only possible in democracy where everyone enjoys freedom of expression.

Religious-based political parties gained a major role as the Afghan issue promoted slogans of Jihad (Holy war), creating a suitable environment for such parties. General Zia-ul-Haq was also in favor of this approach. All newspapers of that time covered Afghan stories and fully supported Mujahideen and Jihadi groups.

Pakistan's Three Demands for Afghan Crisis Role

General Zia-ul-Haq presented three demands to perform a basic role in the Afghan crisis:

(a) Arms supply given to Mujahideen should be of Russian origin and no American ammunition would be used.

(b) No other country including USA would be allowed to contact Mujahideen directly. Aid for Afghan refugees would be dealt through Pakistan so that Pakistan could avoid any chaotic condition.

(c) At a given time, two aero planes loaded with ammunition would land in Pakistan. Further arms supply would be made after confirmation by this country.

Americans agreed to all three demands, and Pakistan started to play a significant role in Afghan Jihad, fully supported by mass media.

Negative Consequences of Media Coverage

Mass media in that era did not mention the negative aspects of Afghan policy, leaving many areas of concern for Pakistan:

• Pakistani militant groups gained expertise in ammunition during the Afghan war
• Sectarian groups armed themselves with modern weapons and ammunition
• Religious groups received encouragement that they were fighting a bigger enemy in the name of Jihad
• This aspect encouraged religious extremism and sectarian violence in the country

Newspapers' Failure in Social Responsibility

There was no tolerance preached by newspapers to acknowledge the creed and sects of others. Newspapers published news of sectarian violence quite regularly, but there was no planned effort to discourage sectarian violence.

Pakistani papers started to treat religion as a sensitive issue, avoiding such topics in editorials and articles. They used simplified terms to name and blame culprits.

Newspapers never developed social pressure on extremist groups by educating people. Papers never tried to organize that problem. In terms of Social Responsibility Theory, people ignored their role of social responsibility. The newspapers were never representative of the following definition of democracy in the country:

"When we agree to disagree with each other, it is democracy."

🔑 Definition — Social Responsibility Theory: A media theory that holds media should serve the public interest by presenting accurate, balanced information and by encouraging social harmony rather than merely pursuing profit or state interests.

📌 Example: During the Zia era, newspapers reported sectarian violence regularly but made no organized effort through editorials, articles, or public education to discourage such violence. This demonstrates a failure of social responsibility, as media did not use its influence to create social pressure against extremism.

💡 Why this matters: This example shows how media can become complicit in societal problems by reporting problems without attempting solutions, especially when the state promotes a particular narrative.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical lesson from this lecture is that mass media during the Zia-ul-Haq era (1977–1988) became a tool for state policy, fully supporting the Afghan Jihad narrative while ignoring negative consequences. Newspapers failed in their social responsibility by not discouraging sectarian violence, treating religion as too sensitive to critique, and never developing social pressure against extremist groups. The era demonstrated how media functioning is compromised under authoritarian regimes where freedom of expression is limited. Students must understand that media's silence on critical issues—even when reporting problems—represents a failure of democracy, which requires "agreeing to disagree" with others. The three demands of Pakistan to the USA show how the state controlled the Afghan crisis narrative that media then amplified.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What were the two major international events of 1979 that affected Pakistan during this era?
2. What were the three demands General Zia-ul-Haq presented to the USA for Pakistan's role in the Afghan crisis?
3. How did mass media coverage of the Afghan Jihad contribute to religious extremism and sectarian violence in Pakistan?
4. Why does the lecture state that newspapers failed in their "social responsibility" during this period?
5. What is the democratic principle quoted in the lecture that newspapers failed to represent?

📘 Lecture 11 — Role of Mass Media in the Era of 1988 to 1999

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the evolution of mass media in Pakistan during the politically turbulent period from 1988 to 1999. It covers key transitions including the end of military rule, changes in press ordinances, the rise of evening newspapers, conflicts between government and media, and media's role during national events like Pakistan's nuclear tests.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the non-party elections of 1985 and M. Khan Junicho's premiership, the international scenario under Gorbachev and USSR's withdrawal from Afghanistan, General Zia-ul-Haq's death and the subsequent caretaker government's replacement of PPO with RPPO, the emergence of evening newspapers and yellow journalism trends, governments from 1988 to 1996 and assembly dissolutions, the 1998 conflict between Nawaz Sharif and the Jang group over journalist dismissals, the journalist movement for press freedom, debates about government privileges affecting journalistic neutrality, and media's response to India and Pakistan's nuclear tests in 1998.

📝 Lecture Summary

Non-Party Elections and Political Background

In 1985, non-party elections were held to lift martial law, and M. Khan Junicho was appointed Prime Minister of Pakistan. On the international front, Michael Gorbachev came to power and determined that communism was no longer sustainable as a national movement. Because communism had an international character requiring USSR to support smaller communist countries, this was a burden on the USSR. According to the Geneva agreement, Gorbachev decided to withdraw Russian forces from Afghanistan, and by 1989, all Russian forces had been withdrawn.

Meanwhile, M. Khan Junicho was dismissed by General Zia-ul-Haq, who argued that the party system is not fruitful for Pakistan as there is no party system in Islam.

Caretaker Government and Press Ordinances

In 1988, General M. Zia-ul-Haq's Plane C130 crashed in Bhawalpur, and a caretaker government was formed. This caretaker government replaced the PPO (Press Publication Ordinance) with RPPO (Registration of Press & Publication Ordinance). However, when new assemblies were formed, this ordinance was not presented for approval and ultimately quashed. During the caretaker government period, with the decline of PPO, a lot of newspapers started to publish, which suddenly gave a boost to journalism in Pakistan.

💡 Why this matters: The replacement and eventual abandonment of the PPO represented a significant liberalization of press controls, allowing greater freedom for newspaper publication.

Emergence of Evening Newspapers

Gradually, a new trend of evening newspapers was introduced. Evening newspapers were quite common in Karachi but now they started to print from Lahore and Islamabad. This was considered a positive start. However, many critics said that they started a fiction trend and yellow journalism began to be practiced. Newspapers refuted this blame.

🔑 Definition — Yellow Journalism: [as implied in the lecture] A style of journalism that emphasizes sensationalism, exaggeration, and unverified or fictional content to attract readers, often at the expense of factual accuracy and ethical standards.

Political Instability (1988-1996)

From 1988 to 1996, different governments were formed, but each time the president dissolved assemblies at different times. In the 1996 election, Pakistan Muslim League achieved a landslide victory, and its governments were formed in all the provinces and also in the National Assembly.

Conflict Between Government and Jang Group (1998)

In 1998, a conflict was established between Muhammad Nawaz Sharif and the Jang group. Nawaz Sharif demanded that 23 journalists should be dismissed from the Jang group who were opposing Mian Nawaz Sharif's policy, but the Jang group refused to do so.

Against this step, journalists launched a movement and called it an attack on freedom of press.

Debate on Journalistic Neutrality

Following this conflict, a group of journalists started to argue that journalists should stop taking privileges from the government because it affects the neutrality of journalists. They argued that when journalists accept government privileges, their objective writing becomes subjective.

🔑 Definition — Objective Writing: Journalistic writing that is impartial, unbiased, and based on facts without personal opinions or influences from external sources such as government favors. 🔑 Definition — Subjective Writing: Journalistic writing influenced by personal opinions, biases, or external pressures, losing its neutral stance.

Nuclear Tests and Media Response (1998)

In 1998, India tested its nuclear devices and adopted a very aggressive policy against Pakistan. Pakistan responded to that aggressive policy by testing nuclear devices on 28th May, 1998.

On this event, all the newspapers started to favor the government stance and told the people that Pakistan is now in the race of super powers and there will be a new opening for Pakistan after that.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The period from 1988 to 1999 marked a significant transformation in Pakistani media, beginning with the replacement of the restrictive PPO with RPPO (which was later quashed), leading to a boom in newspaper publication. The introduction of evening newspapers from Lahore and Islamabad brought both positive growth and criticism of yellow journalism. The 1998 conflict between Nawaz Sharif and the Jang group sparked a major journalist movement defending press freedom, while simultaneously raising important debates about how government privileges compromise journalistic neutrality. Finally, during the 1998 nuclear tests, media universally supported the government stance, portraying Pakistan's achievement as entry into the superpower race.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the PPO, and how did the caretaker government change it in 1988?
2. Why did critics accuse evening newspapers of practicing yellow journalism?
3. What was the core demand that Nawaz Sharif made against the Jang group in 1998?
4. According to some journalists, how do government privileges affect journalistic writing?
5. How did Pakistani newspapers respond to Pakistan's nuclear tests on 28th May, 1998?

📘 Lecture 12 — Pakistan Towards Press Freedom

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the gradual evolution of press freedom in Pakistan, beginning with the caretaker government of 1988 following the Bahawalpur tragedy. It explores how global technological changes, particularly satellite communication, and international political events like 9/11 influenced Pakistan's media landscape and the government's approach to freedom of expression.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the historical suppression of press freedom under Ayub Khan's regime, the shift towards openness after 1988, the impact of satellite technology and dish antennas on information flow, the delayed publication of the Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report on Dhaka's fall, and how the 9/11 tragedy and subsequent US-Afghanistan military operation affected Pakistani media's ability to present diverse viewpoints including anti-government sentiments.

📝 Lecture Summary

Freedom of Expression in Pakistan

Freedom of expression in Pakistan began with the arrival of the caretaker government after the tragedy of Bahawalpur in 1988. Meanwhile, the world was moving towards a global village through satellite communication, which made it impossible for governments to hide facts from the public. Pakistan was affected by this new technology as dish antennas became quite common across the country. The government felt this change and gradually started to think about press freedom.

Historical Suppression of Press Freedom

In Pakistan, there was never a favorable time regarding press freedom — facts were always kept hidden from the public. Ayub Khan was the first ruler who curtailed not only political growth but also the growth of press freedom. This trend of suppression prevailed in Pakistan for a very long time, and no government tried to break these chains of communication until 1988.

The Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report

The inquiry report of Dhaka's fall, known as the Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report, was published after 34 years in 2005. The reason for publication was that an Indian website revealed and published it on the internet. When it became an open secret, the government of Pakistan also decided to publicize the report. This is a clear example of how international scenarios affect national policies.

🔑 Definition — Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report: The official inquiry report into the causes of East Pakistan's separation (Dhaka fall) in 1971, which was suppressed by successive Pakistani governments for 34 years until an Indian website leaked it online in 2005.

💡 Why this matters: This event demonstrates how global connectivity and foreign media can force national governments to release information they would otherwise keep secret, a key factor in the development of press freedom.

Impact of 9/11 on International Politics

The framework of international politics changed drastically after the 9/11 tragedy in the US. Strain in relations was seen on the international horizon — Western Europe and American relations became strained, and similarly, Middle East and American relations also went under great strain.

Pakistan's Role in the Afghan Military Operation

The blame for 9/11 was placed on Osama bin Laden and the Taliban in Afghanistan, so a military option was decided. To complete the military operation in Afghanistan, either Iran could be helpful or Pakistan. Since Iran had no bilateral relations with the US, Pakistan was the last suitable option for the USA. President Musharraf was contacted and his answer was in affirmation regarding helping US forces carry out the military operation.

🔑 Definition — 9/11 tragedy: The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, in the United States, which fundamentally altered international relations and led to the US invasion of Afghanistan, subsequently affecting Pakistan's domestic and foreign policy.

Pakistani Media's Response to Musharraf's Stand

Pakistani newspapers clearly wrote that the people of Pakistan did not like President Musharraf's stand on the Afghan issue. Some newspapers even wrote that the US is not a reliable friend of Pakistan. Despite these criticisms, President Musharraf's statements that terrorism cannot be eradicated unless the root causes are removed were also reported. Thus, a balanced sort of view was seen in newspapers — they not only reflected government feelings but also expressed some anti-government sentiments.

First Independent Coverage by Pakistani Media

Generally, for all information, Pakistan relied on Western media that provides their own point of view. During the Iraq war, for the first time, private TV channels and newspapers sent their representatives to Jordan and Syria near the Iraq border to get the real picture. This was the first attempt of Pakistani mass media to present their own point of view independently.

📌 Example: During the Iraq War, Pakistani private TV channels and newspapers sent correspondents to Jordan and Syria — neighboring countries to Iraq — to independently report events rather than relying solely on Western media sources. This marked Pakistan's first effort at independent war coverage.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that press freedom in Pakistan began emerging only after 1988, following decades of suppression dating back to Ayub Khan's era. The Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report's 34-year delay demonstrates how governments control sensitive information until forced by external factors like foreign media. The 9/11 tragedy transformed international politics and placed Pakistan in a strategic position between the US and Afghanistan, creating space for Pakistani media to express both pro-government and anti-government views. The Iraq War marked a watershed moment when Pakistani media first attempted independent war coverage by sending their own reporters rather than relying on Western sources. Ultimately, global technological changes like satellite communication and international events forced gradual liberalization of Pakistan's press environment.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What event in 1988 marked the beginning of freedom of expression in Pakistan?
2. Which Pakistani ruler was the first to curtail both political growth and press freedom?
3. Why was the Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report finally published in 2005, 34 years after the Dhaka fall?
4. How did President Musharraf's response to US requests for help in Afghanistan create space for Pakistani media to express diverse viewpoints?
5. What was significant about Pakistani media's coverage of the Iraq War compared to previous international conflicts?

📘 Lecture 13 — Role of Print Media After 2000

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the evolving role of print media in Pakistan after the year 2000, focusing on the complex relationship between the government and media. It critically analyzes the divergent policies and coverage of English versus Urdu newspapers on key national issues such as terrorism, nuclear policy, child labour, women's rights, and religious extremism, highlighting the profound impact of these differences on public opinion and government initiatives.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the watch-dog role of mass media versus government interests; the impact of the Musharraf government's post-9/11 US support; the phenomenon of dummy newspapers and untrained staff; the significant policy divide between English and Urdu newspapers; and specific case studies including nuclear tests (1998), child labour, women's rights, religious extremism, and President Musharraf's anti-extremism policy.

📝 Lecture Summary

Role of Print Media After 2000

Mass media and governments are often in opposition because governments want to highlight achievements, while mass media acts as a watch dog, interested in flaws and mistakes. The mistakes of the government become a hot issue when printed in newspapers, keeping reader interest intact. Newspapers seek stories that portray something exciting for the people. The decision of Musharraf Government to support the US after 9/11 cost a lot for Pakistan, as a fresh wave of terrorism was seen across the country.

💡 Why this matters: This tension between government spin and media scrutiny defines the environment in which Pakistani journalism operates.

Dummy Newspapers and Untrained Staff

Every newspaper tries to keep itself in the mainstream. However, some dummy newspapers remain in the main line by submitting copies of the newspapers to the press branch. The declaration of newspapers is bound to their circulation. Many dummy newspapers just to keep their declaration intact give the impression that the newspaper is printing, so they keep submitting a few copies to the press branch. In Pakistan, many newspaper staff are untrained. The emergence of RPPO (Removal of Press and Publications Ordinances) started a mushroom growth of newspapers, and these newly emerged newspapers could not find technically competent staff. Therefore, many journalists are unaware of the working conditions and ethics of journalism.

🔑 Definition — Dummy Newspapers: Newspapers that exist only on paper for the purpose of maintaining their legal declaration and circulation registration, without genuine readership or journalistic output.

Policy Divergence Between English and Urdu Newspapers

In Pakistan, mainstream newspapers are either English or Urdu. Local language newspapers have little influence. Unfortunately, even these two types of newspapers have a major difference in their policies. The readership of English newspapers is very different in culture, values, status, economic interest, and political understanding. Therefore, we see a widening horizon between these two papers. Some groups in Pakistan print both Urdu and English newspapers, but their policy is found different for Urdu newspapers and different for English newspapers.

Case Study: Nuclear Tests of 1998

The best example of the difference of opinion between English and Urdu newspapers can be seen in 1998. When India tested nuclear devices and the Pakistani government was thinking about a response for three weeks, Urdu newspapers clearly supported the stance that Pakistan should also have nuclear weapons. Urdu newspapers never talked about the harmful impacts of nuclear weapons. On the other hand, English newspapers opted for a very moderate stance and clearly informed the public about the negative impacts of nuclear weapons.

Case Study: Child Labour and Women's Rights

Child Labour is another issue dealt with very seriously by English newspapers, which clearly condemn the issue, while there is very rare chance of any such news or article in Urdu newspapers. Similarly, English newspapers very frequently talk about Woman rights and show the clear picture of their exploitation in society as a suppressed class, while Urdu newspapers remained silent on this issue for quite a long time.

Case Study: Religious Extremism

Religious extremism is condemned by English newspapers, while Urdu newspapers have no such policy. In fact, many times in Urdu newspapers articles were written or news was molded in a way that people developed sympathy with religious extremists. Politicians also did not condemn religious extremism. Since Urdu newspapers give 70% of their news in the form of political statements, a common man had nothing else to read, and politicians were silent on the issue.

Failure of Government Policy on Extremism

President Musharaf's policy to uproot extremism could not be successful because Urdu newspapers never supported the policy, and the common man got very little to read about the negative impacts of extremism. It is a fact that only those movements got success that were supported by mass media, as happened in 1977 and during the Afghan Jihad. English newspapers played their part, but the majority of Urdu newspapers did not do that. In a nutshell, the basic reason for government failure in catering religious extremism was the role of Urdu newspapers, as they never supported the government on this issue.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The single most critical insight from this lecture is the deep and consequential policy divide between English and Urdu newspapers in Pakistan. English newspapers consistently adopt a moderate, progressive stance on issues like nuclear weapons, child labour, women's rights, and religious extremism, informing the public about negative consequences. In contrast, Urdu newspapers either remain silent or actively shape public opinion in support of nationalist or extremist viewpoints, directly influencing the failure of government policies like President Musharraf's anti-extremism drive. This divergence stems from the different readership bases — English papers catering to a more educated, elite, and internationally aware audience, while Urdu papers rely heavily on political statements and reflect more conservative public sentiment. Additionally, the phenomenon of dummy newspapers and untrained staff undermines overall journalistic quality in Pakistan.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. Why did President Musharraf's policy to uproot extremism fail, according to the lecture?
2. What was the difference in coverage between English and Urdu newspapers regarding India's 1998 nuclear tests?
3. What is a "dummy newspaper" and why do such publications exist in Pakistan?
4. Which social issues are covered by English newspapers but largely ignored by Urdu newspapers?
5. What percentage of Urdu newspaper content typically comes in the form of political statements?

📘 Lecture 14 — The Present Situation of Print Media in Pakistan

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the current state of print media in Pakistan, focusing on differences between Urdu and English newspapers regarding religious extremism. It critically analyzes the freedom of mass media in Muslim countries compared to the West, and highlights the challenges of propaganda, outdated terminology, and lack of self-analysis platforms in Pakistani media.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the sensitivity of Pakistani media on Islamic character, the lack of press freedom in most Muslim countries, the monopoly of Western media in shaping global opinions, psychological warfare as part of Western media strategy, the four influential groups in a state, the misuse of superficial terms like “unanimous opinion” and “dynamic leadership” in Pakistani media, and the need for neutrality and modernization in Pakistani mass media.

📝 Lecture Summary

The Present Situation of Print Media in Pakistan

In Pakistan, Urdu and English newspapers differ significantly in their content regarding religious extremism. Pakistani mass media has been very sensitive on International Islamic Character even before Pakistan’s creation, as seen in the Khilafat Movement. Most Muslim countries have not paid attention to the identity of their own country or other Islamic countries; the concept of Ummah negates nationalism for them, which ignores the present age of nation states. In Muslim countries, mass media is not as free as it is in Pakistan and Turkey, so Pakistani media is free to criticize the government to a great extent.

🔑 Definition — Ummah: The collective community of Muslim believers, which some argue negates the concept of nationalism in Muslim countries.

💡 Why this matters: The tension between Ummah and nationalism shapes how Pakistani media covers both domestic and international Islamic issues, influencing editorial policies and content.

Mass Media as a Platform for Self-Analysis

Mass media presents an analysis of a nation’s drawbacks. If media is under constant observation and not free, it becomes impossible to analyze a nation. Unfortunately, the Muslim world has no platform for self-analysis because press is not free in most Muslim countries. This gap is filled by Western mass media, so people are bound to see Western media to satisfy their curiosity about the drawbacks of their governments.

🔑 Definition — Self-analysis platform: A free press environment that allows a nation to critically examine its own weaknesses and failures.

Western Media Monopoly and Psychological Warfare

Western mass media creates a monopoly and tries to manipulate the ideas of other nations. They have been so successful that today, if Economist, Time Magazine, and New York Times write something, it is considered true. Western media has mastered psychology of warfare — psychological warfare is a part of mass media. The Muslim world is far behind in safeguarding its interests in this regard.

📐 Formula: Western Media Monopoly → Global Manipulation of Ideas → Acceptance as Truth

📌 Example: When Time Magazine or The New York Times publishes a story about a Muslim country, it is widely accepted as true globally, even if it does not reflect local realities, because Muslim countries lack their own credible media platforms.

The Role of Media in Influencing Policy

In any state, there are four influential groups: Policy Makers, Military Elites, Politicians, and Civilians. To influence policy makers, it is important to influence the common man because statesmen take decisions in favor of the people. Direct communication has an important part to play — television, radio, and newspapers play an important role in it.

🔑 Definition — Four influential groups: Policy Makers, Military Elites, Politicians, and Civilians — the key stakeholders that media must target to influence national policy.

Problematic Terminology in Pakistani Media

Democratic societies do not use superficial sorts of words in mass media. The word “unanimous opinion” is most commonly used in Pakistani media, while there is no unanimity in democracy because democracy means to acknowledge different thoughts. Another word exploited by Pakistani mass media is “dynamic leadership.” All these words show how biased Pakistani media is and how bad its outlook is compared to other mass media of the world. Pakistani mass media is still working on the same footing as it did during the Pakistan movement — using obsolete and outdated terms. Mass media should realize that times have changed and we are no longer in conflict. Such words used for leaders of the Pakistan movement should be avoided. Present-age media should look like a true established democratic media, and neutrality should be its chief characteristic.

📌 Example: The term “dynamic leadership” was used excessively for political leaders during the Pakistan movement era. Using the same term for modern politicians creates a biased and outdated portrayal that does not reflect democratic neutrality.

💡 Why this matters: Outdated terminology maintains a conflict-oriented mindset in media, preventing Pakistan from developing a mature, neutral, and democratic press culture.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that Urdu and English newspapers in Pakistan differ in their coverage of religious extremism, reflecting linguistic and audience-based editorial biases. The Muslim world lacks free media platforms for self-analysis, forcing people to rely on Western media that monopolizes global narratives and uses psychological warfare. Pakistani media still uses obsolete terms like “unanimous opinion” and “dynamic leadership” which contradict democratic principles of acknowledging diverse opinions. Neutrality should be the chief characteristic of modern democratic media, and media must move beyond the conflict-oriented language of the Pakistan movement era. To influence policy makers, media must first influence the common man, as statesmen make decisions in favor of the people.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. How do Urdu and English newspapers in Pakistan differ in content regarding religious extremism?
2. Why is the Muslim world unable to perform self-analysis through its own media, and how does Western media fill this gap?
3. What are the four influential groups in any state according to this lecture?
4. Why is the term “unanimous opinion” problematic in a democratic media context?
5. What is “psychological warfare” in the context of Western mass media, and why is the Muslim world behind in countering it?

📘 Lecture 15 — Newspaper Contents and Changes in It Over the Period of Time

📖 Overview: This lecture traces the historical evolution of newspaper content from simple narrative stories to the modern structured format. It identifies the three core segments of a newspaper—advertising, editorial, and news—and explains how advertising has become the financial backbone, influencing editorial policy and newspaper operations.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with the historical evolution of newspapers from unformatted story forms (like the popular Paisa newspaper in the sub-continent) to the modern segmented format. It then explores the three fundamental segments: advertising as the lifeblood of newspapers (including the misconception of Jewish control), the editorial page with its columns and letters to the editor, and the reporting segment with its beats, shifts, and news collection sources.

📝 Lecture Summary

Historical Evolution of Newspaper Format

In the beginning, newspapers were not in the form they are seen today. In the earlier phase, newspapers were just in a story form, and there was no concept of formatting of news. In the sub-continent, the Paisa newspaper was very popular; its layout was just like a Magazine, and there was no concept of a heading.

🔑 Definition — Paisa newspaper: A popular early newspaper in the sub-continent that lacked modern news formatting and had a magazine-like layout without headings. 💡 Why this matters: This shows how the visual structure of news is a relatively modern invention.

The Three Basic Segments of a Modern Newspaper

There are three basic segments in a newspaper nowadays: (a) Advertising, (b) Editorial, and (c) News.

Advertising is a very important feature of a newspaper. The most persuasive advertising leaves a lasting impact and has great appeal for the newspaper readers. There is a general misconception that news sources are directly under the control of Jews. In fact, Jews own Multinational companies and they are the biggest advertisers. Therefore, advertising is the life blood of a newspaper, which is why newspapers subdue to the policy of these multinationals.

🔑 Definition — Life blood of a newspaper: Advertising, which gives newspapers financial viability and substantial influence over editorial policy. 📐 Concept: Advertising revenue → Multinational company influence → Newspaper policy alignment 📌 Example: Jewish-owned multinationals are among the biggest advertisers; thus, newspapers adjust their policies to avoid losing this crucial revenue.

A newspaper has a circulation department, and good newspapers do a lot of research to find out the interest of the readers. This marketing is a device to address the interest of the readers so that the circulation of the newspapers can be enhanced.

Editorials are another important segment. The subjective opinion of every kind is given on this page. The ethics of journalism say that news should be objective; therefore, a separate page is associated for that, called the editorial page. Usually, the editorial page reflects the policy of the newspaper. Columns are printed on the editorial page. In the beginning, columns were just humorous. In the sub-continent, Abdul Majeed Salik, Chragh Hassan Hasrat, and Atta-ul-Haq Qasmi are prominent names in this horizon. Usually, columns are called the interpretation of the news. Walter Lipan, a famous journalist, says that "events are not important unless they are reported." Letters to the editor also carry a personal opinion, so they are printed on the Editorial Page.

🔑 Definition — Editorial page: The page in a newspaper dedicated to subjective opinion that reflects the newspaper's policy, as opposed to objective news pages. 🔑 Definition — Column: A piece on the editorial page, originally humorous, now considered the interpretation of news.

Reporting is the third important segment. Every kind of news is classified into its respective beat. Every reporter in a newspaper has a special beat. News are constantly monitored by sub editors in a news room. Every source is used by the newspapers to collect the news: Radio, television, news agencies (National and International news agencies). For reporting, there are normally three shifts, and the last shift is very important till 2am because it has to collect all the material until the dead line.

🔑 Definition — Beat: A specific area or topic assigned to a reporter for regular news coverage. 🔑 Definition — Dead line: The final time (noted as 2am for the last shift) by which all material must be collected for the newspaper.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The lecture establishes that newspapers evolved from unstructured story formats to three distinct segments: advertising, editorial, and news. Advertising is the critical financial driver, often leading to policy accommodation of major advertisers (multinationals). The editorial page serves as the space for subjective opinion and the newspaper's policy reflection, while the news/reporting segment relies on beats, sub-editors, multiple shifts, and diverse news sources (radio, TV, agencies). For the exam, remember the three segments, the role of advertising as "life blood," the names of sub-continent columnists, and the function of the editorial page versus objective news reporting.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What were the characteristics of the Paisa newspaper in the sub-continent?
2. What are the three basic segments of a modern newspaper?
3. According to the lecture, why do newspapers subdue to the policy of multinational companies?
4. Who are the three prominent columnists mentioned from the sub-continent, and what was the original nature of columns?
5. Why is the last shift (until 2am) considered very important in newspaper reporting?

📘 Lecture 16 — New Trends of Journalism in Pakistan

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the evolution and emerging trends in Pakistani journalism, focusing on technological advancements in printing, the rise of pictorial journalism, and the role of newspapers in public discourse. It highlights how global practices like investigative journalism remain underrepresented in Pakistan while local innovations like forum discussions and feature writing have grown in importance.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the historical shift from Litho to Offset printing in Pakistan (1953), the significance of pictorial journalism in news and advertising, the role of forum discussions and newspaper-organized events in enhancing freedom of expression, the absence of investigative reporting in Pakistan compared to the US (Watergate scandal example), the 2005 Press Ordinance, and the distinction between news and features as a substitute for investigative reporting.

📝 Lecture Summary

New Trends of Journalism in Pakistan

There are several important factors in the formation of a newspaper, including make up, designing, printing, and stall value (the display appeal at newsstands).

Printing Evolution

In Pakistan after independence till 1953, Litho printing was used, which lacked clarity and gave a very ordinary impression on paper. In 1953, Kohistan started Offset printing, which made photo journalism possible. In offset printing, photographic plates are used and then converted onto Aluminum plate.

Pictorial Journalism

In newspapers, a good picture should supplement the news. A Chinese saying states that "a good picture is better than one thousand words." During the Vietnam war, 58,000 American soldiers lost their lives. People saw the ugly face of death on television, which created a very different impact, causing Americans to criticize the government's policy. 💡 Why this matters: This demonstrates how visual journalism can shape public opinion and influence policy.

Another important aspect of pictorial journalism is show biz. Fashion photography has become part of newspapers today. Similarly, advertising is also an essential part of pictorial journalism. Many advertisements are in multi-colour, which was absent 10 years ago.

Forum Discussions and Newspaper Events

A new trend that has emerged in our newspapers is forum discussion. Papers invite different experts, giving the advantage of having different opinions at one platform, which are then published in newspapers. Some newspapers organize musical activities to get marketing and publicity. Many seminars on serious issues are also organized by different newspapers, enhancing freedom of expression. A recent example is the Hudood Ordinance, where many newspapers organized discussion panels for that.

Investigative Reporting

In Pakistani newspapers, there is no investigative reporting. In many countries like the USA, investigative reporting is very common. President Nixon had to leave his office after the investigative reporting of Washington Post that the Watergate building was bugged. President Nixon ordered that all the speeches and sessions of Democrats would be recorded. When Washington Post published this news, the President had to resign.

In Pakistan, freedom of press is not encouraging. However, an ordinance of 2005 was implemented that made things very easy, but still it is not the ideal one.

Features vs. News

Features have covered the gap of investigative reporting. There is a wide difference between news and a feature. Features are not time bound while news are time bound. Features can be objective and subjective while news is always objective. Features writers take their material from the happenings around them.

🔑 Definition — Litho printing: A printing method used in Pakistan until 1953 that lacked clarity and gave an ordinary impression on paper. 🔑 Definition — Offset printing: A printing method introduced by Kohistan in 1953 using photographic plates converted onto Aluminum plate, enabling photo journalism. 🔑 Definition — Investigative reporting: In-depth reporting that uncovers hidden information, as demonstrated by the Washington Post's Watergate coverage that led to President Nixon's resignation. 📐 Key Difference: Features → not time bound, can be objective and subjective. News → time bound, always objective. 📌 Example (Watergate): President Nixon ordered recording of Democrat sessions in Watergate building; Washington Post published the story, leading to Nixon's resignation. This example shows the power of investigative journalism in holding leaders accountable.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that offset printing revolutionized Pakistani journalism in 1953 by enabling photojournalism, while the shift to multi-colour advertising and fashion photography represents modern pictorial trends. Forum discussions and newspaper-organized seminars have enhanced freedom of expression in Pakistan, though investigative journalism remains absent unlike in the USA where it forced President Nixon to resign. The 2005 Press Ordinance improved press freedom but is not ideal, and features have filled the gap of investigative reporting since features are timeless and can blend objectivity with subjectivity unlike time-bound, strictly objective news.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What printing method was used in Pakistan from independence until 1953, and what was its main limitation?
2. How did offset printing change journalism in Pakistan when introduced by Kohistan in 1953?
3. What was the impact of television coverage of the Vietnam war on American public opinion?
4. What major event did Washington Post investigative reporting expose, and what was the outcome for President Nixon?
5. What are the two key differences between news and features in terms of time and objectivity?

📘 Lecture 17 — Magazine Journalism

📖 Overview: This lecture defines magazine journalism and traces its historical evolution from early periodicals to modern publications. It explores the diverse categories of magazines that emerged in Pakistan after independence, examines the reasons for their rise and decline, and outlines the essential qualities required for successful magazine journalism.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with foundational definitions of magazine, periodical, and journal, followed by a historical perspective dating back to 1731. It then provides a comprehensive classification of magazines in Pakistan after independence, including literary, religious, film, sports, political, women's, children’s, fashion, digest, in-house, and research journals. The lecture concludes by discussing the necessities and qualities of effective magazine journalism, emphasizing the editor's role and the importance of photo journalism.

📝 Lecture Summary

Magazine

A magazine is a periodical publication containing a wide variety of articles on various subjects.

🔑 Definition — Periodical: A regular issue from a press; it could be a magazine or a review.

🔑 Definition — Journal: A professional periodical.

Historical perspective

The term Magazine was first used in 1731 in the title of “Gentleman’s Magazine” founded in London, though magazines in early form were available to the general public since 1646. In 1691, The Compleat Library appeared, considered the first magazine to break away from book information. The first essay-type periodical was Tattler, and the first magazine published from the USA was Andrew Branford’s American Magazine.

Magazine Journalism after Independence

Major contribution of periodicals in Pakistan's history had been in the area of literature. A huge number of literary journals and magazines of high quality were published in early years after independence, creating a mindset among readers that a periodical is a literary journal, which is altogether wrong. Since independence, different magazines and periodicals have been published and can be classified into different categories.

Literary Magazine

A literary magazine is a periodical devoted to literature, covering poetry, short stories, essays, critical reviews, interviews of poets and authors, letters, and related content. Famous literary magazines that have vanished include Sawera, Naqsh, Naya Daur, Naya adab, and Urdu adab. After the 1960s, they disappeared and digest magazines took their place. Critics blame radio, television, and newspapers for this decline. Television and radio provide entertainment and information through dramas, songs (poetry), and discussions, reducing the demand for literary magazines. Another reason is the lack of availability of good writings and the cheap entertainment available in the form of digests.

Religious Magazine

A religious magazine is devoted to a specific religion, aimed at preaching through religious poetry, scholars' articles, interviews, answering queries, historical incidents, and comparative analysis with other religions. In the 19th century, when journalism was taking shape in the sub-continent, the most popular periodicals were religious magazines. Hindus, Muslims, and Christian missionaries were publishing their magazines and propagating their religions. Different organizations, sects, and people publish religious magazines in Pakistan, but they are no longer popular because electronic media, particularly private Islamic and other channels, are doing the job in a more popular way, reducing the demand for religious magazines.

Film Magazine

Film magazines provide both information and entertainment, offering updates on upcoming local and international movies, interviews and pictures of stars, spicy news about actors and actresses, and other public interest content. In Pakistan, film magazines have become less popular due to the overall downfall of Pakistan's Film Industry. Till 1970, approximately 110 films were released per year; now it is 20-25. Similarly, the number of cinema houses was 850 till 1970; now it is about 350. This decline has disturbed film magazine circulation. Another reason is the extensive coverage of films and entertainment by newspapers, which reduces the need for separate film magazines.

Sports Magazine

Sports magazines cover sports and sports persons, providing sports fans with information about international and national sports events and sports persons, and giving pictorial coverage to mega sports events to meet public demands.

Political Magazine

Political magazines provide insight and updates on different political events nationally and internationally, political updates, news, interviews of famous politicians, political party activities, scandals, and public opinion regarding party popularity. In the 7th and 8th decades of the 20th century, popular political magazines existed, but their circulation has decreased. The major reason for decline is newspapers, which now deeply and thoroughly cover political news through editorials, features, and columns, making people less interested in spending extra money on political magazines. Famous political magazines that once existed include Lail-o-nahar and Al-fateh.

Women’s Magazine

Before partition, the sub-continent had popular women’s magazines like Ismat, published from Delhi. After independence, in the 1960s, besides independent women's magazines, all national dailies started publishing women’s periodicals. A women’s magazine covers everything of women’s interest: beauty tips, articles on women issues, their poetry and writings, and interviews of successful women.

Children’s Magazine

Phool was one of the most popular children’s magazines of the sub-continent before independence. Khilona from Delhi continued publishing even after partition. In Pakistan, daily newspapers publish children’s special periodicals covering children’s drawings, pictures, poems, short stories, cartoons, and other interest-related content.

Fashion Magazine

Fashion magazines, also called society magazines, inform people about new trends of society in different ways. A special feature is their high-quality Photo Journalism. They are usually liked by people but their circulation is not high due to their expensive nature.

Digest Magazine

Reader’s Digest is the first digest in history. A digest magazine provides digestible material to its readers. In Pakistan, 80-85 digest magazines are available for light reading, covering translations of short stories and novels from other languages (mostly English), mythological stories, local stories, and fiction. Digest magazines have become the most popular and affordable type of magazine in Pakistan.

In-house Journal

In-house journals are published by different organizations to provide information to clients and employees regarding their services, policies, and related information. In Pakistan, government, semi-government, and private organizations publish in-house journals, which can be divided into sub-categories. Newsletter is one of the most popular types.

Research Journal

Research journals are usually published on a quarterly basis. They cover and publish latest research, usually in the form of research papers, sometimes on different topics and sometimes in a specific area. Almost all universities and higher education institutions publish these research journals regularly because they are considered a symbol of progress and knowledge. Students also give them more importance over their academic books. Other professional journals like medical journals, architectural journals, and IT journals are also being published in Pakistan.

Necessities/requirements/qualities of Magazine Journalism

The editor of a periodical or magazine should be a reputable person in his field in terms of his contacts. For example, an editor of a literary journal must be aware of all important persons in the field and have friendly relations with them because they are the biggest source of information for the magazine.

Photo Journalism

Another important requirement is high-quality photo journalism. Whatever category a magazine falls in, its pictorial coverage of events, incidents, and personalities has always been a major reason for popularity among readers. A magazine with low-quality photo journalism cannot establish its identity and position, neither in the market nor in the eyes of its readers. Life Magazine, a magazine of international repute, was purely based on photo journalism and is considered a fine example for others. It not only established its own identity through its pictures but also helped in establishing a standard guideline for other magazines.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A magazine is a periodical publication containing varied articles, distinct from a periodical (any regular press issue) and a journal (a professional periodical). The term "magazine" was first used in 1731 for "Gentleman's Magazine." In Pakistan, magazines are classified into literary, religious, film, sports, political, women’s, children’s, fashion, digest, in-house, and research journals. Most categories, except digest magazines, have declined due to competition from electronic media and newspapers that now cover these topics extensively. High-quality photo journalism and a well-connected editor are essential requirements for successful magazine journalism, as exemplified by Life Magazine.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between a magazine, a periodical, and a journal as defined in the lecture?
2. Name at least three literary magazines that vanished from Pakistan after the 1960s and what replaced them.
3. Why have film and political magazines declined in popularity in Pakistan according to the lecture?
4. What percentage of films were released per year till 1970 compared to now, and how many cinema houses were there in each period?
5. What is the significance of Life Magazine in the context of magazine journalism, and what quality does it exemplify?

📘 Lecture 18 — News Agency

📖 Overview: This lecture covers the definition, history, and global significance of news agencies, including major international wire services. It also provides a detailed historical account of the development of news agencies in Pakistan, distinguishing between state-owned and private entities, and explains the fundamental operational difference between a newspaper and a news agency.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining a news agency and its role as a news source for other media. It traces the historical development of the world's first news agencies in the 19th century, from New York to Europe, and lists the four major international news agencies operating today. The lecture then shifts to a detailed history of news agencies in the subcontinent and Pakistan, covering the formation of APP, PPI, and UPP, as well as their evolution under various governments. Finally, it contrasts the operational policy constraints of a news agency with the editorial freedom of a newspaper.

📝 Lecture Summary

News Agency

A news agency is an organization that acts as a source of news for different newspapers, radio, television and other organizations and individuals who are interested in getting them. News agencies do not publish these news themselves; they collect the news and provide them after subscription to their clients. They are also called as wire services or news services or press agencies.

Historical perspective

World’s first news agency was formed around 1820s in New York City under the name of Association of Morning Newspapers. It was formed to gather upcoming reports from Europe. The first international news agencies formed in Europe were: Agence Havas of Paris (1835); the Reuter Telegram Company of London (1851), known simply as Reuters; and the Continental Telegraphen Compagnie of Berlin (1849), known as the Wolff Agency. They started their work as a financial data service to bankers and businessmen but then extended their service to world news. Reuters is also considered as the oldest news agency of the world. Initially news agencies used to send news through telegraphy services now it has been replaced by internet.

International News Agency

Four major international news agencies are: Reuters, Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), and Agence France-Presse (AFP). They are providing extensive service to their subscribers all over the world. They provide 3.5 crore words per day to their subscribers in more than 150 countries. These international news agencies work 24 hours and now also provide trade related hot news, international market trends and rates, currency rates and other commerce related information to their clients.

News Agencies in Pakistan

United India’s first news agencies were Press Trust of India and Associated Press of India. Later before independence when two-nation theory got a recognition and acceptance, another news agency called Orient was formed in Lahore by Muslim journalists and newspapers of sub-continent. After independence, Orient survived for a very short time; however the part of Associated Press of India that remained in Pakistan was declared as the first news agency of Pakistan with a name called Associated Press of Pakistan (APP). Now APP is considered among the world’s major International news agencies. APP was formed and initially controlled and run by the journalists and newspapers’ editors of Pakistan. In 1956 some journalists parted from it and formed a private news agency called Pakistan Press Association. After sometime when it broadened its canvas and started working internationally, it changed its name to Pakistan Press International (PPI).

In 1960 General Ayub Khan’s government took APP under government’s control and made it a state owned news agency under the Federal Information Department. From that day till date APP is working as a state owned news agency.

Another news agency United Press of Pakistan (UPP) came into existence in December 1949. Mr. Qutubuddin Aziz, as a private limited company founded it. However for a long time, the agency has merely existed on paper and just about manages to get the small subsidies marked for it by the central and provisional governments. In general Zia’s regime some smaller news agencies also appeared but they could not establish their identity and name as APP and PPI did.

💡 Why this matters: This history shows that Pakistan's news landscape has been shaped by both a dominant state-owned agency (APP) and private sector initiatives (PPI, UPP), reflecting ongoing tension between government control and independent journalism.

Difference between the working of a newspaper and news agency

A newspaper has its own policy under its own specific management; however, a news agency cannot form a specific policy or point of view. A news agency has its clients and subscribers in different parts of the world with their own specific policies and stance on different issues. Therefore, a news agency is bound to adopt an unbiased, objective and indifferent approach in its reporting and services to keep its subscribers satisfied.

⭐ Key Takeaways

• A news agency is a wholesale news provider that collects and distributes news to multiple media clients via subscription, without publishing it themselves, requiring strict objectivity.
• The world’s oldest and four major international news agencies (Reuters, AP, UPI, AFP) originated in the 19th century and now send 35 million words daily to over 150 countries.
• In Pakistan, APP (Associated Press of Pakistan) was the first news agency, initially private but taken over by the state in 1960, while PPI emerged as its main private competitor.
• Unlike newspapers which can adopt their own editorial policy, news agencies must remain unbiased and objective to serve clients with diverse viewpoints globally.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the fundamental difference in policy approach between a newspaper and a news agency?
2. Which news agency is considered the oldest in the world, and in which year was it founded?
3. Under which Pakistani government was APP taken into state control, and in which year?
4. Name the two major news agencies that emerged in Pakistan after independence, and state which one is state-owned.
5. How many words per day do the four major international news agencies collectively provide to their subscribers, and in how many countries?

📘 Lecture 19 — Press and Government

📖 Overview: This lecture traces the historical evolution of press-government relations in the Indian subcontinent from 1782 to post-independence Pakistan. It examines how colonial rulers gradually tightened press controls as vernacular newspapers emerged, and how Muslim journalism played a pivotal role in political movements like the Khilafat Movement. The lecture also critically analyzes the early tensions between Pakistan's founding leadership and the press regarding freedom of expression.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the early period of English-language newspapers under East India Company rule (1780-1822), the introduction of the first press licensing act in 1823 following the emergence of Urdu newspapers, the severe crackdown on Muslim journalists after the 1857 War of Independence, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's reformist journalism through Tehzib-ul Ikhlaq, the role of Muslim newspapers in the Khilafat Movement (1914-1924), the repressive Rowlett Act of 1919, the shift toward Muslim versus Hindu journalism after 1929, and the beginning of press-government tensions in Pakistan after 1947.

📝 Lecture Summary

1780-1822

All newspapers were published in English language, which was not a matter of concern for East India Company because the major population of the sub-continent was unable to read and understand English. They were at ease that these newspapers could not raise the people against them in any way, and therefore they did not regulate them or other publications through any law. However, they showed a little concern when initially William Bolt in 1776 showed interest in publishing the first newspaper in the sub-continent and was ultimately deported back to England by East India Company.

Jame Jahan Numa, the first Urdu newspaper, appeared on the scene from Calcutta in 1822, but as Urdu was not a popular language at that time, Munshi Sada Sukh later converted it into Persian and then made it a bilingual newspaper. An important Press Act was introduced by the foreign rulers in 1823, immediately after native people's idea of publishing newspapers in their own languages (Persian, Urdu, Bengali). According to this act, taking a prior permission (license) for publishing a newspaper or any other publication was made compulsory. The government also had the authority to cancel the license whenever it desired.

💡 Why this matters: The 1823 Press Act marked the first formal censorship mechanism in the subcontinent and set a precedent for all future colonial and post-colonial press regulations.

Pre and post 1857 period

When the War of Independence began, the British government wanted to curtail the freedom of press completely, so they victimized different local papers, claiming that this war was the result of that freedom which was given by them to local media. As the British came out victorious and it was a Muslim ruler whose throne was toppled by them, Muslims had to face more bitter consequences than Hindus. Newspapers published and edited by them, particularly the newspapers and journalists of Delhi, were blamed to be responsible for the so-called mutiny and rebellion against British and East India Company. Sadaq-al-akhbar edited by Syed Jamiluddin and Delhi Urdu Akhbar edited by Maulvi Muhammad Baqir were closed down by the Raj as punishment for standing against them.

At this bleak and difficult time, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan realized his responsibility as a learned and educated man and played a major role in reducing distances between the British government and Muslims of the sub-continent. His Tehzib-ul Ikhlaq, an Urdu journal published in 1870, propagated his reformative doctrines regarding society and religion. He is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the transitional period of the sub-continent's history.

Khilafat Movement 1914-1924

The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British India for the retention of the Ottoman Khilafat and for not handing over the control of Muslim holy places to non-Muslims. When the Khilafat movement started in 1914, Muslim journalists played a vital role in steering the direction of the struggle. Zamindar of Molana Zafar Ali Khan, Comrade and Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, and Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh of Molana Abul Kalam Azad, Urdu e Mualla of Molana Hasrat Mohani were the prominent newspapers and magazines which performed their duties to express their resentment.

These Muslim journalists and their papers were sentenced and sanctioned several times. In 1910, another Press Act was enforced by the Raj; under this press act, only Zamindar had to give security 11 times. Newspapers and journalists of Bombay, Delhi, UP, and Madras were particularly under strict observation in this period.

🔑 Definition — Zamindar: A prominent Urdu newspaper edited by Molana Zafar Ali Khan that was repeatedly penalized under the 1910 Press Act, being forced to pay security deposits 11 times for its pro-Khilafat stance.

Rowlett Act, 1919

Rowlett Act was a black law introduced in India. According to the law, the government got authority to persecute any Indian, and the arrested had no facility of legal assistance and right to appeal — just as the 'Lettres de Cachet' in France before the French Revolution. Quaid e Azam resigned from the central legislature as protest.

In 1929, after the failure of All Parties Conference in which Hindus rejected demands presented by Muslim leaders and refused to adjust them in any way, Indian politics divided into Muslim politics and Hindu politics, and similarly Muslim journalism and Hindu journalism. In 1942, Congress started Quit India Movement which became quite violent; press laws were amended again by the government to control them, and strict actions were taken against newspapers that supported this movement, which were mostly Hindu newspapers.

📌 Example: The Rowlett Act operated like the French "Lettres de Cachet" — a system where the government could imprison any individual without trial, legal assistance, or right to appeal. This authoritarian law was so extreme that Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam) resigned from the Central Legislative Council in protest.

After independence

The establishment and bureaucracy of the new-born state were mostly comprised of British trained officials. So in a way, the same approach regarding freedom given to press traveled down to Pakistan from the Raj. Quaid-e-Azam addressed the opening session of Pakistan's Constituent Assembly on 11th September 1947, which was presided by Jugindhar Nath Mandal. In this session, Quaid-e-Azam took an oath as President of the Assembly and delivered a speech announcing his policy and the shape of the constitution, along with defining the structure and form of the political scene of Pakistan. A part of the speech was:

"...you are free to go to your mosques, you are free to go to your temples or to any other place of worship. It has nothing to do with the business of state and politics. By pursuing this policy you will realize after sometime that Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims not in religious sense because religion is a matter of personal faith for everyone. But as citizens of Pakistan for political purposes, all citizens will have equal rights in Pakistan..."

A press advice was issued to radio and newspapers in which they were asked not to publish the complete text of Quaid's speech. Dawn's editor Altaf Hussain did not like the idea as he was very close to Quaid; he called PID (Press Information Department) to find out who was behind it and what part of the speech they didn't want to be published, but the true source could not be located. This is how the press-govt relationship began in Pakistan.

💡 Why this matters: The censorship of Quaid-e-Azam's historic secularism speech by his own government officials reveals that press suppression in Pakistan did not begin with military regimes but was present from the very first days of the state, setting a troubling pattern for decades to come.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The lecture demonstrates that press-government tension in South Asia has deep colonial roots. The British initially ignored English newspapers but imposed strict licensing laws (1823) once vernacular newspapers emerged in Urdu, Persian, and Bengali. Muslim journalists and newspapers bore the heaviest persecution after the 1857 War of Independence, with papers like Delhi Urdu Akhbar and Sadaq-al-akhbar being shut down. Muslim journalism played a critical role in the Khilafat Movement (1914-1924), with papers like Zamindar, Comrade, Hamdard, and Al-Hilal being repeatedly penalized under the 1910 Press Act. The Rowlett Act of 1919 represented the most extreme colonial press suppression, allowing imprisonment without trial. Perhaps most significantly, the post-independence period reveals that censorship in Pakistan began immediately after independence when a press advice prohibited newspapers from publishing Quaid-e-Azam's full speech about equal citizenship rights, demonstrating that press freedom challenges were inherited from the colonial administrative mindset.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the significance of the 1823 Press Act, and why was it introduced immediately after the emergence of Jame Jahan Numa?
2. How did the British use the 1857 War of Independence as justification to crack down on Muslim journalists, and which specific newspapers were closed?
3. What was the role of Muslim journalism in the Khilafat Movement (1914-1924), and how many times was Zamindar forced to pay security under the 1910 Press Act?
4. What were the key features of the Rowlett Act 1919, and why did Quaid-e-Azam resign from the central legislature in protest?
5. What specific incident immediately after independence in 1947 demonstrated the continuation of colonial-era press control in Pakistan, and which newspaper editor protested against it?

📘 Lecture 20 — Press and Government II

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the complex relationship between the press and government in Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. It covers how successive regimes—civilian and military—used legal ordinances, takeovers, and censorship to control media, while journalists and publications resisted these pressures. Understanding this period is crucial for grasping the historical roots of media-state tensions in Pakistan.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture spans three distinct periods: 1947-1958, covering Pakistan's alignment with the American bloc and the targeting of Progressive Papers Limited (PPL); 1958-1969, detailing Ayub Khan's martial law, the Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO), and the National Press Trust (NPT); and 1969-1971, examining Yahya Khan's brief liberalization followed by renewed crackdowns on journalists. Key themes include state control through legal instruments, suppression of leftist voices, and the ethical decline of journalism during periods of apparent freedom.

📝 Lecture Summary

1947-1958

When Pakistan emerged on the world map, the Cold War (an ideological war between the Soviet Union and America) was ongoing, with media as the primary channel. The world was divided into two blocs: the Communist bloc and the American bloc. Pakistan's leaders chose to join the American bloc, after which numerous actions were taken against newspapers, magazines, and journalists who leaned toward the communist school of thought.

Progressive Papers Limited (PPL) was an important organization formed by Mian Iftikharuddin, a former member of the Communist Party of India. Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah had asked Muslim journalists to publish newspapers from different places to spread the Muslim League's message and support the Pakistan Movement. The intellectuals in PPL were mostly those who participated in the Progressive Writers Movement (1936). It is the only organization in Pakistan's history that gathered such a huge number of laureates and intellectuals under its roof.

After joining the American bloc, the first newspapers and publications targeted by the government were PPL's publications. In 1953, the Communist Party was banned. From 1947 to 1953, almost 58 magazines and books were banned by the establishment and removed from the market.

💡 Why this matters: This period established the pattern of using Cold War alignment as justification for suppressing dissenting media voices.

🔑 Definition — Progressive Papers Limited (PPL): A newspaper organization formed by Mian Iftikharuddin that published progressive, left-leaning newspapers and gathered leading intellectuals under its roof. 📐 Formula: American bloc alignment → suppression of communist-leaning press → PPL targeted first 📌 Example: From 1947-1953, 58 magazines and books were banned by the establishment and removed from the market because of their perceived communist sympathies.

1958-1969

On October 7, 1958, President Sikander Mirza abrogated the Constitution and declared Martial Law in the country. The Constitution of 1956 was abrogated, ministers were dismissed, Central and Provincial Assemblies were dissolved, and all political activities were banned. General Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, became the Chief Martial Law Administrator. The parliamentary system in Pakistan came to an end. Within three weeks, on October 27, 1958, Sikander Mirza was ousted by General Ayub Khan, who then declared himself President.

Ayub Khan, within the first week of his coup, detained Syed Sibt-e-Hassan (editor of weekly Lail-o-Nihar), Ahmed Nadim Qasmi (editor of Imrooz), and Faiz Ahmed Faiz (editor of Pakistan Times)—all of whom worked for PPL. On April 18, 1959, the government took over PPL's papers, aimed at preventing the organization from roaming in the “DISTANT ORBITS AND ALIEN HORIZONS” (referring to PPL's Progressive Ideology). The Board of Directors of PPL was dissolved, and an administrator was appointed.

Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO)

In 1961, the Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO) was formed and enforced to keep newspapers under government control. It was described as a "black law" completely boycotted by media organizations and journalists. One clause stated that all newspapers were ordered to publish DPR's (Directorate of Public Relations) or PID's (Press Information Department) handouts exactly as received, which is simply against freedom of press.

In 1963, the West Pakistan Press and Publications Ordinance and East Pakistan Press and Publications Ordinance were introduced by the provincial governments. The pressure from these provincial laws resulted in an amendment to the PPO, but even after that, its harshness remained the same.

In 1964, the National Press Trust (NPT) was established, and all PPL papers were handed over to this "monster." The NPT had the right to take over any newspaper or magazine that was apparently financially unable to run the newspaper or was deemed dangerous to the country's security. Apparently, it was an independent body, but actually, it was state-controlled. After PPL's publications, Daily Mashriq was also handed over to NPT; the Sindhi paper Hilal-e-Pakistan was taken over; Morning News (published since 1936, first from Calcutta and after partition from Karachi and Dhaka) was also taken over. Some Bengali newspapers were also taken over by the NPT. Dawn, Jang, and Nawa-e-Waqt were the only papers not taken into government custody, but they still had a tough time under Ayub, as they were not liked by the government.

Another harsh action taken against the press by Ayub's government was the condition imposed on international news agencies: they could not directly send news to their subscribers in Pakistan. They were asked to send their news via APP (Associated Press of Pakistan) or PPI (Pakistan Press International). This action was taken to control and restrict the news and information coming from international media from reaching Pakistani people.

💡 Why this matters: The PPO and NPT became templates for state control of media that would be replicated and adapted by later regimes.

🔑 Definition — Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO) 1961: A black law that forced newspapers to publish government handouts verbatim and gave the state broad powers over the press. 📐 Formula: Martial Law → PPO (1961) → NPT (1964) → State takeover of PPL papers → Control of international news agencies 📌 Example: On April 18, 1959, the government took over all PPL papers—Pakistan Times, Imrooz, Lail-o-Nihar, and Sports Times—dissolved the Board of Directors, and appointed an administrator.

1969-1971

In March 1969, the second Martial Law was enforced in Pakistan by General Yahya Khan. After taking over, he accepted all the political demands that had been asked by political parties for quite some time. The press was given complete freedom, and a moratorium was put on the PPO so that it could not be used against the press any further.

Although freedom of press was enjoyed by media and newspapers, General Yahya's period is not considered a flourishing period of journalism, because in this period no ethics were observed by the newspapers, with an exception to a few reputable papers. Many dummy papers were revived; free insulting and even abusive language was used. Other than state-owned papers and some private newspapers, the journalistic scenario was quite dark during this time, out of the freedom given to the press.

In this period, some actions were taken against journalists. The first target was again PPL: 24 journalists were fired from Imrooz, Pakistan Times, and Lail-o-Nihar. These fired journalists formed Journalist United and revived a dummy paper called Azad. A rebellion case was filed against the editorial board of Azad in the Martial Law court, as they were favoring the Majority Party that won the election (the 1970 elections which the Awami League won). This action made it clear that even in General Yahya's government, freedom was restricted to immorality, not to the truth.

💡 Why this matters: This period demonstrates that press freedom without ethical responsibility can be as damaging as state censorship.

📌 Example: 24 journalists were fired from PPL papers (Imrooz, Pakistan Times, and Lail-o-Nihar). They formed Journalist United and revived Azad. A rebellion case was filed against Azad's editorial board in Martial Law court for favoring the majority party that won the 1970 elections.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical point to remember is that Pakistan's early governments systematically suppressed left-leaning media, starting with Progressive Papers Limited (PPL) and its intellectuals like Faiz Ahmed Faiz. The Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO) of 1961 and the National Press Trust (NPT) of 1964 were the primary legal instruments used by Ayub Khan's regime to control newspapers, force publication of government handouts, and take over financially troubled publications. International news was also filtered through state agencies (APP/PPI). Although Yahya Khan's period (1969-1971) lifted the PPO, the resulting press freedom was marred by ethical decline, abusive language, and dummy papers—and journalists who supported the winning party in the 1970 elections were still targeted with rebellion cases. The pattern across all three periods shows that press freedom in Pakistan was consistently subordinated to political and ideological interests of the ruling regime.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was Progressive Papers Limited (PPL), who founded it, and why was it specifically targeted by the government after Pakistan joined the American bloc?
2. List three specific actions taken by Ayub Khan's government to control the press between 1958 and 1969.
3. What clause in the Press and Publications Ordinance (PPO) of 1961 was considered most damaging to press freedom, and what did it require newspapers to do?
4. How did the National Press Trust (NPT) of 1964 function, and which major newspapers were taken over by it?
5. Why is General Yahya Khan's period (1969-1971) not considered a flourishing period of journalism, despite the lifting of the PPO?

📘 Lecture 21 — Press and Government III

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the historical tension between the press and government in Pakistan, focusing on repressive measures taken against journalists and newspapers. It traces key events from the post-independence Security Act through the 1971 crisis, and documents the mechanisms governments use to control media, while also outlining professional journalistic standards and Pakistan's major press organizations.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture discusses the Security Act rejected by Quaid-e-Azam but later enforced, government actions during the 1971 East Pakistan crisis and its aftermath, specific punitive measures used against newspapers including ad and newsprint quota reductions, the Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists from the International Federation of Journalists, and three major Pakistani press organizations: All Pakistan Newspapers Society (APNS), Council of Pakistan Newspaper's Editors (CPNE), and Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists (PFUJ).

📝 Lecture Summary

Press and Government III

In all societies of the world, democratic or un-democratic, rulers always resent any attempt to provide new philosophies, new opinions and new ideas to the people. Press history of Pakistan shows that most actions taken against the press and journalists by the government were taken in the first 5-7 years of its independence. Immediately after independence a Security Act was brought in front of Quaid-e-Azam which was a black law to restrict the freedom of people and press. Under this act, law enforcing agencies had the authority to arrest any person for three to six months without giving any reason in the name of keeping peace, law and order or to avoid any law and order situation. Quaid-e Azam being a man of law very rigorously rejected this act. After Quaid's death the same Act was first enforced as an ordinance and later on passed by the parliament and enforced as a law. This Security Act was brutally used against politicians and the journalists by the later governments.

🔑 Definition — Security Act: A repressive law that allowed law enforcement agencies to arrest any person for 3-6 months without reason or charge, rejected by Quaid-e-Azam but later enacted as law after his death.

1971-1977

In 1971 crisis, journalists and newspapers were under strict observation and no journalist or newspaper was permitted to write about situation or incidents happening in East Pakistan, to keep the people blind of the situation. Freedom of press which was bestowed on newspapers and journalists was for obscene and immoral things, not for objective or unbiased reporting. People's right to know was an unacceptable thing to the government. Later, nation's anger over country's humiliating defeat by India boiled into street demonstrations throughout country. To forestall further unrest, General Yahya hastily surrendered his powers to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan People's Party. After Dhaka fall media played a great role in re-boasting nation's morale that were very disappointed over country's division into two parts and brought them back to the real life. Even then Draconian law, PPO (Press and Publications Ordinance) was revived again and used against the press by the new government. Weekly Outlook and Punjab Punch were closed down using this ordinance despite the fact that they were among those papers that supported PPP in election.

Different governments used different actions against newspapers and journalists in different times. However most actions usually taken by the governments against newspapers to show their anger and to punish them are: Quota of Official ads is reduced or abandoned; Newsprint quota is reduced; Ending up subscription of newspapers in public institutions; Not inviting journalists to official functions and not to let them cover official meetings, seminars or functions.

🔑 Definition — PPO (Press and Publications Ordinance): A Draconian law revived after the 1971 crisis and used to suppress press freedom, resulting in closure of newspapers like Weekly Outlook and Punjab Punch.

Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists

Adopted by the Second World Congress of the International Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux on 25-28 April 1954 and amended by the 18th IFJ World Congress in Helsingör on 2-6 June 1986. This international Declaration is proclaimed as a standard of professional conduct for journalists engaged in gathering, transmitting, disseminating and commenting on news and information and in describing events.

1. Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the journalist.
2. In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all times defend the principles of freedom in the honest collection and publication of news, and of the right of fair comment and criticism.
3. The journalist shall report only in accordance with facts of which he/ she knows the origin. The journalist shall not suppress essential information or falsify documents.
4. The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtain news, photographs and documents.
5. The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any published information which is found to be harmfully inaccurate.
6. The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regarding the source of information obtained in confidence.
7. The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media, and shall do the utmost to avoid facilitating such discrimination based on, among other things, race, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinions, and national or social origins.
8. The journalist shall regard as grave professional offences the following: Plagiarism; Malicious misrepresentation; Calumny, slander, libel, unfounded accusations; Acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or suppression.
9. Journalists worthy of that name shall deem in their duty to observe faithfully the principles stated above. Within the general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only, to the exclusion of every kind of interference by governments or others.

🔑 Definition — Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists: An international standard of professional conduct for journalists adopted by the IFJ in 1954, emphasizing truth, freedom, fair methods, accuracy, and prohibiting plagiarism, misrepresentation, and bribery.

APNS (All Pakistan Newspapers Society)

APNS is the organization of the Pakistani newspapers' owners. Its election is held every year; three major groups of newspapers are the major players of APNS that are: Jang Group, Dawn Group and Nawa-i-Waqt Group. These groups are accused for bribing the smaller newspapers and getting benefit at large from the successive governments. This is the major body which refuses to give the Wage Board Award to the working journalists. According to the Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists, the labor laws are violated in the Pakistani newspaper industry but no government dares to take action against these powerful elite of the country.

It was founded in 1953 by the major, pioneering editors and publishers of the day to facilitate the exchange of views between the editors of the major publications of Pakistan and to protect the rights of newspapers by giving them a voice to appeal unfair decisions against them. Today, the APNS is a clearing house of sorts for its member publications, safeguarding the commercial interests of newspapers under its membership (including tax payment). For example, if a company advertises in a publication but refuses to pay, the publication complains to the APNS. The APNS gives the agency an ultimatum: pay or get blacklisted.

Its founders were: Hamid Nizami, Altaf Hussain – all the important, pioneering editors of the day. Before APNS in 1950, the Pakistan Newspapers Society (PNS) was founded (to emerge the existing publishers), when the editors of the time realized that the print media needed organization and needed a clearing house. However, the PNS didn't last for very long as it didn't receive much support from publishers, advertisers or authorities. Three years later in 1953 the All Pakistan Newspapers Society (APNS) came into being. It was badly needed to 'facilitate the exchange of views amongst newspaper owners on matters of common interest.' APNS successfully gave newspaper owners the means to watch over, protect, preserve and promote the rights and interest of the newspaper industry on matters directly or indirectly affecting its rights and interests. The Daily DAWN was the founding member.

💡 Why this matters: APNS represents newspaper owners' commercial interests but has been criticized for opposing fair wages for working journalists, highlighting the tension between ownership and labor rights in Pakistani media.

🔑 Definition — APNS (All Pakistan Newspapers Society): An organization founded in 1953 representing Pakistani newspaper owners, primarily the Jang, Dawn, and Nawa-i-Waqt groups, that protects commercial interests of member publications including advertising payment and tax matters.

CPNE (Council of Pakistan Newspaper's Editors)

A couple of years later after APNS came into existence, in 1955, the Council of Pakistan Newspaper's Editors (CPNE) was established as a representative body of the editors of the publications of Pakistan. Both the CPNE and the APNS struggled against black press laws that trampled over the freedom of the press.

🔑 Definition — CPNE (Council of Pakistan Newspaper's Editors): A representative body established in 1955 for editors of Pakistani publications, which alongside APNS fought against repressive press laws.

PFUJ (Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists)

Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists (PFUJ) is located in Islamabad, Pakistan. PFUJ is arguably South Asia's first association representing the journalists of an entire country. To its credit, in the 50-odd years since its inception it has always stood out as a symbol of freedom of speech. The battles it waged for press freedom and for a democratic dispensation in the country will always remain etched in the collective memory of Pakistanis. To this day, PFUJ remains committed to the ideals for which it was established in 1950. Set up primarily to work towards a better working environment for Pakistani journalists, it didn't remain isolated from the struggles and campaigns launched by the civil society. In fact, it was in the vanguard whenever sacrifices needed to be made and freedoms were to be won.

Pakistani journalists are although following some code of ethics on their own as different media organizations and newspapers have their own code of ethics but there is no unanimous written code of ethics for the country's press which is mainly because PFUJ has always stood on the demand that the government should first abolish the black laws against press and after that talk about the code of ethics. In established democracies, press and media have their own independent bodies, court of honours and code of ethics to keep the media, press and journalists accountable.

Among the laws that are used against press, newspapers and journalists, other than press/media laws, are laws of defamation and liable. Another law of contempt of court is also used against press and journalists particularly in case of court reporting.

💡 Why this matters: PFUJ positions itself as a defender of press freedom rather than a regulator, refusing to adopt a code of ethics until repressive laws are abolished, contrasting with established democracies where media self-regulation exists.

🔑 Definition — PFUJ (Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists): South Asia's first national journalists' association, established in 1950 in Islamabad, committed to better working conditions for journalists and fighting for press freedom, refusing to adopt a code of ethics until black laws against press are abolished.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The Security Act rejected by Quaid-e-Azam was later enforced and used against journalists, demonstrating how early post-independence governments suppressed press freedom through black laws. During the 1971 crisis, strict censorship prevented reporting on East Pakistan, and after the Dhaka fall, the PPO was revived to close newspapers even those supporting the government. Governments typically punish newspapers by reducing official ads, cutting newsprint quotas, ending subscriptions, and excluding journalists from official events. Three major press organizations exist in Pakistan: APNS (owners' body founded 1953), CPNE (editors' body founded 1955), and PFUJ (journalists' union founded 1950), with PFUJ refusing to adopt a code of ethics until black laws are abolished. The IFJ Declaration of Principles establishes international standards for journalists including truth, fair methods, confidentiality, and prohibiting plagiarism and bribery.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What was the Security Act rejected by Quaid-e-Azam, and how was it later used against journalists?
2. List four specific actions governments take to punish newspapers according to the lecture.
3. What are the three major groups that dominate APNS, and what criticism is leveled against them regarding the Wage Board Award?
4. Why does PFUJ refuse to adopt a unanimous written code of ethics for Pakistani journalists?
5. According to the IFJ Declaration of Principles, what are the four grave professional offences journalists must regard?

📘 Lecture 22 — Press and Government IV

📖 Overview: This lecture covers the relationship between the Pakistani press and government from 1977 onward, beginning with the Zia-ul-Haq era and its harsh press restrictions. It also explores the fundamental concept of the people's right to know, examining international declarations, Pakistan's constitutional provisions, and the flawed Freedom of Information Ordinance of 2002.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with General Zia-ul-Haq's military coup in 1977 and the severe press restrictions including closures, arrests, and pre-censorship that lasted until 1988. It then covers the transition to the RPPPO ordinance and the relatively better environment for press under subsequent governments, including Musharraf's era. The second half examines the philosophical foundation of press freedom through the people's right to know, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), and critically analyzes Article 19 of the Constitution of Pakistan 1973 and the Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002.

📝 Lecture Summary

1977- till date

General Zia-ul-Haq came to power by overthrowing Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto after widespread civil disorder in a military coup on July 5, 1977, and imposed Martial Law. He assumed the post of President of Pakistan in 1978 and was assassinated in a planned aircraft crash on August 17, 1988 under mysterious circumstances.

18 magazines and newspapers were closed down and almost 150 journalists were arrested and given different punishments by the Martial Law courts during this period. For a long time, pre-censorship was imposed on newspapers—no newspaper could publish anything without prior approval from the Information Department. In protest, newspapers initially published leaving empty spaces for censored news, but they were then ordered by the Information Department to publish some other news in place of censored news. These restrictions continued until 1988.

After Zia's death, the new caretaker government repealed PPO and introduced a new, better ordinance: the Registration of Printing Press and Publications Ordinance (RPPPO). RPPPO was a sign of relief for journalists and newspapers, and since then the press has comparatively enjoyed and worked in a better environment without major clashes with the government. The only exception was during 1997-99 when Nawaz Sharif's government had some problems with the Jang Group of Newspapers.

On 12th October, 1999, General Musharraf took over, but no new law or additional restrictions were imposed on the press. Rather, Musharraf's government appreciated the private sector and gave them a chance to invest more in electronic media, which resulted in many new radio and TV channels.

💡 Why this matters: This chronology shows how press freedom in Pakistan has been directly tied to the type of government in power, with military regimes imposing the harshest restrictions and democratic/caretaker governments offering more freedom.

People's right to know

Freedom of press is linked with the people's right to know or free access to information that ensures accountability and a true democratic society. In all democratic societies, government accepts people's right to know and therefore cannot stop anyone from getting any information. It is an accepted basic human right in democratic societies to keep governments accountable to the public.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

On December 10, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Assembly called upon all member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories."

Article 19: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers."

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)

Article 19

1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.
2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.
3. The exercise of these rights carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:
   • For respect of the rights or reputations of others.
   • For the protection of national security or of public order (order public), or of public health or morals.

Till 2002, this basic right was not approved or accepted in Pakistan. Freedom of expression and freedom of press is mentioned in the Constitution of Pakistan 1973 but with conditions that are very vague and can be used by the government to exploit any journalist, newspaper, or media organization.

Constitution of Pakistan 1973

Article 19: "Every citizen shall have the right of freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom of the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security, or defense of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality or in relation to the contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an office."

During the caretaker government of Malik Mairaj Khalid (Nov. 1996 – Feb. 1997), Information Minister Javed Jabbar introduced an ordinance "Right to know." But the government that came later did not forward it in the assembly, and therefore the ordinance died its own death.

In October 2002, when international donors insisted on legislation on the people's right to know, an ordinance called the Freedom of Information Ordinance was hurriedly promulgated by General Musharraf's government. The fact that the parliament that had come into being at that time was deliberately bypassed in making the law throws some light on the negative attitude of the government of the day on the issue.

Some serious flaws in the Freedom of Information Law stand out:

1. First, the ordinance is in addition to, and not in derogation of, anything contained in any other law for the time being in force. This means that if there is any law that militates against the right to know, that law will take precedence over the ordinance and nullify its effect.
2. Secondly, the ordinance prohibits making public several important documents which throw light on the decision-making process in government departments. These include noting on files, minutes of meetings, any interim orders, records of banking companies relating to the accounts of their customers, and the record of private documents furnished to public offices among others. Denying access to these important documents means shielding the government against charges of mis-governance and corruption in hatching schemes and making purchases that might be utterly useless or downright harmful.

💡 Why this matters: The Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002, despite its name, contained structural flaws that effectively allowed the government to continue withholding crucial information, defeating the very purpose of a right-to-know law.

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture is critical for understanding how press freedom in Pakistan has evolved through different regimes and the legal frameworks governing it. The Zia-ul-Haq era (1977-1988) was the most repressive period, with 18 publications closed, 150 journalists arrested, and strict pre-censorship imposed. The transition to RPPPO after Zia's death marked a significant improvement. Internationally, press freedom is protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), both guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression. However, Pakistan's Constitution of 1973, Article 19, grants freedom of speech and press only "subject to reasonable restrictions" based on vague grounds like Islam's glory, national security, and public order, making it easy for governments to suppress dissent. The Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002 was deeply flawed because it was subordinate to other laws and specifically exempted key decision-making documents like file notings and meeting minutes from public access.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What happened to newspapers that left empty spaces for censored news during Zia-ul-Haq's regime, and what was the government's response?
2. What was the Registration of Printing Press and Publications Ordinance (RPPPO), when was it introduced, and why was it significant?
3. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 19, what specific rights does everyone have regarding freedom of opinion and expression?
4. What are the two major flaws in the Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002 that make it ineffective in ensuring the people's right to know?
5. How does Article 19 of the Constitution of Pakistan 1973 differ from the international standards set by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the ICCPR regarding freedom of expression?