MCM310 — Midterm Summary (Lectures 1–22)

📘 Lecture 1 — INTRODUCTION TO JOURNALISTIC WRITING

📖 Overview: This introductory lecture defines the importance of writing as a fundamental tool for human advancement and personal success. It explores the various roles writing plays in practical, professional, and personal life, highlights common writing difficulties, and establishes key differences between spoken and written communication—a critical foundation for journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by establishing why writing matters throughout life, detailing its practical, job-related, stimulating, social, and therapeutic values. It then explains what writing truly requires—clear thinking, time, reading, meaningful tasks, interest, practice, and revision. Practical pointers for improving writing are provided, including real writing, note-taking, brainstorming, journaling, games, lists, and copying. The lecture concludes with a comprehensive comparison of the key differences between speaking and writing processes.

📝 Lecture Summary

Why Writing Matters

Writing is essential from first-grade through adulthood. It is described as practical (making lists, reminders), job-related (preparing memos, reports, articles), stimulating (provoking and organizing thoughts), social (writing thank-you notes and letters), and therapeutic (expressing feelings in writing). Unfortunately, many schools fail to provide sufficient writing instruction, leading to a lack of clarity, coherence, and organization in student writing, with as many as one out of four students having serious writing difficulties.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding that writing is a complex thinking process, not just putting words on paper, is the first step toward mastering journalistic writing.

What Writing Requires

Writing well requires several key elements:

• Clear thinking — Sometimes needing to refresh memory about past events.
• Sufficient time — To think through and write down ideas.
• Reading — Reading good books stimulates better writing.
• A Meaningful Task — Artificial tasks are less effective than real-world writing.
• Interest — There must be something to say or write about.
• Practice — Repeated practice is essential.
• Revising — The ability to make writing clearer, more descriptive, and more concise.

🔑 Definition — Writing: Writing is more than putting words on paper; it is the final stage in the complex process of communicating that begins with "thinking," and its intent is to leave no room for doubt.

Pointers for Improving Writing

The goal is to make writing easier and more enjoyable through several practical strategies:

• Make it real — Write real letters, not just greeting card lines.
• Suggest note-taking — Describe observations from trips or outings.
• Brainstorm — Share impressions and describe people and events.
• Encourage keeping a journal — Excellent practice for writing about feelings, events, and people.
• Use games — Crossword puzzles, word games, anagrams, and flash cards build vocabulary and confidence.
• Suggest making lists — Helps with organization (records, tasks, social events).
• Encourage copying — Writing down favorite songs, poems, or quotations improves writing skills.

Difference Between Speaking and Writing

Writing is not simply speech written down on paper. Learning to write requires systematic instruction and practice, unlike learning to speak.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical concept from this lecture is that writing is a distinct, complex process requiring systematic instruction and practice—it is not merely speech transcribed onto paper. Students must understand that effective writing demands clear thinking, meaningful tasks, interest, practice, and revision, and that it serves multiple purposes from practical to therapeutic. The lecture highlights that many students struggle with writing due to lack of clarity, coherence, and organization, making the study of journalistic writing essential. The detailed comparison between speaking and writing reveals that writers lack immediate audience feedback, making it crucial to plan, edit, and carefully consider what the reader needs to know. Finally, practical strategies like journaling, brainstorming, and using word games can help build vocabulary and confidence for better writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the five roles of writing discussed in the lecture, and give one example for each?
2. List at least four requirements for writing well, as described in the lecture.
3. What is the key difference between how speakers and writers convey their message to the audience?
4. Why is writing not considered a natural extension of learning to speak?
5. What are three practical strategies suggested in the lecture to make writing easier and more enjoyable?

📘 Lecture 2 — Qualities of Good Writers

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the qualities that distinguish good writers, particularly in journalism. It explores writing as both an art and a science, emphasizing that effectiveness depends on understanding the target audience and mastering specific skills like grammar, ethics, and creativity.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining good writing as both an art and a science, with parameters varying by audience. It then lists the general yardsticks for good writing and the specific qualities required of newspaper writers. Finally, it details the essential qualities of a good journalist: a broad range of knowledge, grammar, ethics, context sensitivity, consideration, the balance of dream and reality, persuasion, expression, stylistic versatility, audience understanding, creativity, interviewing skills, research skills, and specific subject knowledge.

📝 Lecture Summary

Qualities of Good Writers

Good writing is both an art and a science. It is an art because it has various styles, and a science because it uses different techniques. The parameters for a good writer depend on the target audience. For example, content writers often use first and second person, while newspaper writers use an objective tone (third-person reporting). General yardsticks for good writing include a good flow, eye-catching content, language, sentence structure, grammar, ideas, and the form used.

Qualities of Newspaper Writers

Newspaper writers must display specific qualities:

• A lively interest in people, places, and events.
• An ability to write in a style that is easy to understand.
• Good spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
• An appreciation of the part a local newspaper plays in the community.
• A willingness to accept irregular hours.
• An ability to work under pressure to meet deadlines.
• Determination and persistence.

A Broad Range of Knowledge

Great writers have a broad educational background and a wealth of knowledge and experience to draw from, making their writing more interesting and engaging.

A Good Grasp of Grammar

Great writers have a thorough understanding of correct grammar and write clear, coherent prose.

A Sense of Ethics and Accuracy

Great writers choose their words carefully, always ensuring their work is both accurate and meets ethical standards, whether personal or organizational.

Context Sensitive

All good writers write in contexts. They adapt their messages to sensitive or non-sensitive situations and do not misjudge this.

Considerate

All good writers know their readers' needs. They know what is “How much” for the ‘skimmers’ and the ‘skeptics’.

Dream and Reality

Writers live in a world of reality and reflect the same truth in their writing. They know that the success of a message depends on four important communication ingredients: social contact, common medium, transmission, and understanding.

Persuasion

All good writers know their language and the trick of the trade. They know how to persuade their readers. They know how to find the best available means of moving a specific audience in a specific situation to a specific decision.

An Ability to Express Ideas

Great writers are able to express their ideas clearly in a logical format that is easy for a reader to understand and follow.

An Ability to Write Well in Different Styles

Great writers can write well in a variety of formats, including technical, persuasive, and descriptive prose.

An Understanding of Who the Audience Is

Great writers know who their audience is and write in a manner that will appeal to this base.

Creativity

Great writers have a strong sense of creativity and always have new ideas for material. They can craft interesting openings that draw a reader in. 💡 Why this matters: Creativity is what makes a story stand out and captures the reader's attention from the very first sentence.

Interviewing Skills

Great writers have excellent interviewing skills and know how to make a subject open up in order to get the best material.

Research Skills

Great writers have savvy research skills and are able to quickly find the information they need to make a piece more interesting.

Specific Subject Knowledge

Great writers are knowledgeable about the subject they write about. Science writers, for example, should have a strong background and knowledge in the area they cover.

⭐ Key Takeaways

To be a good writer, especially in journalism, you must understand that writing is both an art (style) and a science (technique), with your audience dictating your approach. Essential qualities include a broad knowledge base, perfect grammar, a strong ethical sense, and the ability to write clearly and persuasively in different contexts. Furthermore, a journalist must master distinct skills like interviewing and research, and always be creative and considerate of the reader's needs. Ultimately, the success of a message hinges on four key communication ingredients: social contact, common medium, transmission, and understanding.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. According to the lecture, what two things do good writers have in common, as quoted by Friedrich Nietzsche?
2. Why is writing considered both an art and a science?
3. List three of the seven specific qualities that newspaper writers must display.
4. What are the four important communication ingredients that determine the success of a message?
5. Explain the difference between "context sensitive" and "considerate" as qualities of a good writer.

📘 Lecture 3 — Qualities of Good Writers

📖 Overview: This lecture outlines the essential qualities that distinguish good writers from average ones. It emphasizes the importance of reader consideration, investigative skills, understanding communication realities, and persuasive ability. These qualities are foundational for effective journalistic and professional writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers seven key qualities of good writers: being considerate for readers, having an investigative approach, understanding the difference between dream and reality in communication, knowing internal biases and shaping perceptions, being persuasive, having knowledge of the medium (language), and applying these qualities in practical writing scenarios.

📝 Lecture Summary

1. Be considerate for your readers.

A good writer always considers the reader's perspective. They provide context and clear reasoning to help readers understand the situation. For example, compare two announcements about a flight diversion: the first is blunt and gives only facts, while the second apologizes, explains the reason (90-mile-an-hour headwinds), and thanks the passengers. This second approach demonstrates consideration by making the reader feel respected and informed.

🔑 Definition — Reader Consideration: The practice of writing with the audience's needs, understanding, and emotional comfort in mind, providing context and explanations for decisions.

📌 Example: The text compares two pieces. The first says, "We do not have enough fuel to reach Portland. When we land at Sioux City we hope to take on more fuel, which will take about an hour." The second says, "We are encountering 90-mile-an hour headwinds. This wind and our full load mean that we are using more fuel than usual. Consequently, we are diverting to Sioux City, North Dakota, to top up the fuel tanks as a safety precaution. Refueling in Sioux City will take about one hour. I apologize for the unavoidable delay. Thank you." The second version is clearly more considerate.

1. Investigation:

A good writer is highly investigative in their approach. They seek to find out at minimum the answers to the following six key questions: Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How. This ensures completeness and accuracy in reporting.

🔑 Definition — Investigative Writing: The practice of gathering all necessary facts by answering the fundamental questions (Who, What, Where, When, Why, How) before constructing a narrative.

2. Dream and reality:

A good writer understands the communication reality: a message sent is not a message received. A message's success depends on four elements: Social Contact (persons communicating must be in touch), Common Medium (shared language or means), Transmission (message imparted clearly), and Understanding (message received, properly understood, and interpreted). The text illustrates this with an exchange between a plumber and a specialist, where the specialist's overly technical language was misunderstood. The plumber, thinking the specialist agreed, kept thanking him. The specialist eventually had to write bluntly: "Don't use hydrochloric acid. It eats hell out of the pipes." This shows that being a dream writer (assuming perfect understanding) can lead to failure.

🔑 Definition — Communication Reality: The principle that a message's success depends on mutual contact, a common medium, clear transmission, and proper understanding, not just on the sender's intent.

📌 Example: The plumber writes "Hydrochloric acid is good for cleaning out clogged drains." The specialist responds "The efficiency of HCL is indisputable, but the corrosive residue is incompatible with metallic permanence." The plumber thanks him. The specialist re-stresses: "We cannot assume responsibility for the production of toxic and noxious residue..." The plumber thanks him again. Finally, the specialist writes "Don't use hydrochloric acid. It eats hell out of the pipes." This shows the specialist's earlier "dream" writing failed.

3. Know internal biases and shape perceptions:

Good writers try to find the resistance of their readers. They collect all information about their readers and then prepare a game plan to overcome resistance and shape perceptions.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding reader biases allows a writer to anticipate objections and craft more persuasive and effective messages.

4. Persuasive:

Good writers are strong communicators with strong oral and written skills. They use rhetorical devices to exhibit standard behavior and influence readers. They know readers want strong ethics, morality, cooperation, goodwill, efficiency, and trust, so they exhibit these virtues.

🔑 Definition — Persuasive Writing: The use of rhetorical devices, ethical behavior, and positive virtues (cooperation, goodwill, trust) to influence and convince the reader.

5. Knowledge of medium:

Good writers use their medium (language) in the most effective manner and according to the reception level of their readers. This means adapting vocabulary, sentence structure, and tone to match the audience's understanding.

🔑 Definition — Knowledge of Medium: The ability to adapt one's use of language to the specific audience's level of comprehension and the requirements of the communication channel.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A good writer must always be considerate of the reader by providing context and explanations. They must be investigative and answer the Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How. They must understand that simply sending a message does not guarantee it is received or understood (dream vs. reality). They must recognize reader biases, be persuasive by demonstrating ethics and trust, and master their medium by adapting language to the audience. The specialist-plumber exchange is a critical case study of failed communication due to a lack of reader consideration.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the six key questions a good writer must answer during investigation?
2. What is the central lesson of the "dream and reality" concept in communication?
3. Name the four elements that determine a message's success according to this lecture.
4. Why is being "considerate for your readers" important, and how does the flight diversion example illustrate this?
5. What does it mean for a writer to "know the medium" according to this lecture?

📘 Lecture 4 — Qualities of Good Writing

📖 Overview: This lecture defines the essential qualities of good journalistic writing, emphasizing clarity, simplicity, and correctness. It provides practical guidelines for writers, including word choice, sentence construction, and readability formulas, explaining why these elements are critical for effective communication with readers.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with expert quotes on good writing from Fowler and Zinsser, then outlines the pre-writing process of defining message, audience, and purpose. It details the five core qualities of good writing: clear point, tight structure, grammatical correctness, substance, and interest. The lecture then explores the "9 Cs" of writing, with a major focus on clarity through short words, effective sentences and paragraphs, readability indices (Fog, SMOG, Flesch, PSK, Sticht), and the use of examples and visual aids.

📝 Lecture Summary

Qualities of Good Writing

The lecture opens with H.W. Fowler's rules: prefer the familiar word to the far-fetched; the concrete word to the abstract; the single word to the circumlocution; the short word to the long; and the Saxon word to the Romance. William Zinsser adds that good writing strips every sentence to its cleanest components, removing any word that serves no function. Success as a journalist depends on how well you communicate. Before writing, decide on your message (limit to 2-3 main ideas), know your audience (who they are, what they know), and define your purpose (to inform, persuade, or motivate).

💡 Why this matters: Keeping message, audience, and purpose in mind helps you choose the right words and tone—one size does not fit all in writing.

Good writing must:

1. Express a clear point: The reader must grasp the writer's main idea or purpose.
2. Be tightly structured: Use logical connections and transitions to show relationships between ideas.
3. Be grammatically and syntactically correct: Follow rules of Standard English, including punctuation and spelling.
4. Be substantive: The writer should be informed about the subject, showing awareness of its significance. This can include citations of authorities, experiential evidence, and discussion of debatable issues.
5. Be interesting: Engage readers through original insights, precise language, and a "human" voice that shows awareness of the specific audience.

The general characteristics of good writing are the 9 Cs: clarity, completeness, conciseness, creativity, consideration, correctness, credibility, courtesy, and concreteness.

1. Be Clear

Have a definite purpose and communicate it clearly up front. To achieve clarity, you must:

1. Choose short, familiar conversational words.
2. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
3. Achieve appropriate readability.
4. Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids when desirable.

CHOOSE SHORT, FAMILIAR CONVERSATIONAL WORDS.

🔑 Definition — Familiar words: Common, everyday words that are easily understood by a wide audience, as opposed to pretentious or jargon-filled terms.

📐 Technique: Replace pretentious words with familiar ones.

📌 Example:

• Before: After our perusal of pertinent data the conclusion is that a lucrative market exists for the subject property.
• After: The data we studied show that your property is profitable and in high demand.

CONSTRUCT EFFECTIVE SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

Key principles for sentences:

• Length: The average sentence length (ASL) is 17 to 20 words. The effective range is 3 to 30 words or more.
• Unity: A sentence should contain only one main idea.
  • 📌 Example: "I like Tom, and the Eiffel Tower is in Paris." (Incorrect, no unity)
• Coherence: The relationship between parts of a sentence must be clear.
  • 📌 Example 1:
    • Before: "Being an excellent lawyer, I'm sure you can help us."
    • After: "As you are an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can help us." OR "Being an excellent lawyer, you can surely help us."
  • 📌 Example 2:
    • Before: "His report was about managers, broken down by age and sex."
    • After: "His report focused on age and sex of managers."
• Emphasis: Place the main idea in the main clause.
  • 📌 Example:
    • Before: "The airplane finally approached the speed of sound and it became very difficult to control."
    • After: "As it finally approached the speed of sound, the airplane became very difficult to control."

ACHIEVE APPROPRIATE READABILITY

Several indices measure readability (the ease with which a text can be read):

1. Fog Index (Robert Gunning, 1952)

   • 🔑 Definition — Fog Index: A readability formula that gives the US school grade level necessary for comprehension.
   • 📐 Formula: (Average words per sentence + Percentage of words with more than three syllables) × 0.4
   • Scale runs from 6 to 16. If above 12, the text is difficult to read.

2. SMOG Index (Simple Measure of Gobbledygook)

   • 📐 Formula: √[(Total words × 30) / Number of sentences] × 3

3. Flesch Index

   • Designed for adult texts.
   • 📐 Formula:
     1. Calculate average words per sentence.
     2. Multiply by 1.01 → Result 1.
     3. Subtract Result 1 from 206.8.
     4. Calculate syllables per 100 words.
     5. Multiply by 0.846 → Result 2.
     6. Subtract Result 2 from (206.8 - Result 1).
   • Scale runs from 0 to 100 with increasing ease. Standard writing: 17 words/sentence, 147 syllables/100 words = index of 64.

4. PSK (Power-Sumer-Kearl) Index

   • Designed for primary school texts.
   • 📐 Formula: (Average words per sentence × 0.0778) + (Syllables per 100 words × 2.029)

5. Sticht Index

   • Designed by the US Army for functional literacy.
   • 📐 Formula: [(Single-syllable words / Total words) × 15] subtracted from 20.

📌 Example (Before editing):

• Text: "The fact that all organic and inorganic entities and artifacts go through... cycles of change and decay is a well established and integral feature of life... One numerate view of the failure patterns... is shown by the bath tub curve."
• Totals: Words = 107, Sentences = 4, Syllables = 187, Words >3 syllables = 11
• FOG Index = 14.81 (difficult)
• SMOG Index = 84.99
• Flesch Index = 31.8 (difficult)

📌 Example (After editing):

• Text: "The fact that all organic and inorganic entities and artifacts go through... cycles of change and decay is a well known feature of life. This fact also influences many aspects of our lives... One view of the pattern of change and failure is shown by the bath tub curve."
• Totals: Words = 85, Sentences = 4, Syllables = 131, Words >3 syllables = 5
• FOG Index = 10.85 (easier)
• SMOG Index = 75.75
• Flesch Index = 54.85 (easier)

INCLUDE EXAMPLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND OTHER VISUAL AIDS

• Examples, analogies, and illustrations add pictures to your writing.
• Visual aids like headlines, tabulations, itemization, pictures, and charts make writing easier to go through.
• Use underlining, numbering, color, CAPITALS, italics, or wide margins to add emphasis.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Good journalistic writing is built on clarity, simplicity, and audience awareness. The most critical rule is to prefer short, familiar, concrete words over long, abstract, or pretentious ones. Sentences must be unified, coherent, and properly emphasized, with an average length of 17-20 words. Readability can be measured using indices like the Fog Index (goal: below 12), Flesch Index (goal: near 64), and others, and writers should edit their work to improve these scores. Finally, the 9 Cs (clarity, completeness, conciseness, creativity, consideration, correctness, credibility, courtesy, concreteness) provide a comprehensive checklist for all journalistic writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. According to Fowler's rules, should a journalist prefer "Utilization" or "Use"? Why?
2. What are the three questions a writer should answer before beginning to write?
3. Why is the sentence "His report was about managers, broken down by age and sex" an example of poor coherence, and how can it be fixed?
4. If a text has a Fog Index of 14, is it considered easy or difficult to read? What does this number represent?
5. Name at least four of the "9 Cs" of good writing discussed in the lecture.

📘 Lecture 5 — Qualities of Good Writing

📖 Overview: This lecture outlines the essential qualities that make writing effective, clear, and impactful. It emphasizes that good writing is not just about grammar but about being complete, concise, creative, considerate, correct, credible, courteous, and concrete—qualities that ensure the message is understood, trusted, and acted upon.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers eight key qualities of good writing: being complete, concise, creative, considerate, correct, credible, courteous, and concrete. Each quality is explained with practical checklists and examples to help writers evaluate and improve their own work.

📝 Lecture Summary

2. Be complete

Being complete means including all the necessary facts and background information to support the message you are communicating. Partial instructions would not work if we were to survive. Our captain had to make sure we saw the complete picture.

🔑 Checklist for completeness:

1. Have you given all the facts?
2. Have you covered the essentials?
3. Have you answered all his/her questions?
4. Did you PLAN what you said?

3. Be concise

Being concise means keeping in mind the reader's knowledge of the subject and their time constraints. Convey the information as quickly and easily as possible. Keeping it concise (or short) was a life saver, more so when you needed to react immediately to a changing sea or wind pattern.

🔑 Checklist for conciseness:

1. Have you plunged right into the subject of the message?
2. Have you avoided rehashing the reader's letter?
3. Have you said enough, but just enough?
4. Have you avoided needless "filler" words and phrases?

4. Be creative

Being creative means using different formats (vs. straight narrative) to communicate your message. Formats like Q & A, graphics, and idea lists can be effective. Sometimes hand signals were needed when the wind and the sea drowned out our ability to hear.

5. Be considerate

Being considerate means keeping your reader's needs in mind as you write. Ask yourself, 'Why should my reader spend time reading this?' Make it worthwhile for them to do so! We were motivated to survive, to listen and to act. Keep in mind your audience or reader might not be as receptive.

🔑 Checklist for being considerate:

1. Have you put the client first?
2. Have you floodlighted his/her interests?
3. Have you walked in his/her moccasins?
4. Have you talked his/her language?

6. Be correct

Being correct means checking that all your information is accurate and timely. Double-check your spelling, punctuation and grammar. Proofread it before you send it! We couldn't afford to make mistakes, our lives depended on it!

🔑 Checklist for correctness:

1. Have you checked all facts for correctness?
2. Have you spelled the reader's name correctly?
3. Have you verified all numbers and amounts?
4. Is the appearance of the letter effective? Is it clean, well-spaced?
5. Have you checked your spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc.?

7. Be credible

Being credible means striving to present yourself from a position of reliability and competence. Write to reinforce your message and make it more believable. We needed to trust that our captain, with his experience in the US Coast Guard knew what he was doing and was telling us for our own good.

8. Be courteous

Being courteous involves checking for goodwill and a positive tone in your writing.

🔑 Checklist for being courteous:

1. Will it win good will?
2. Have you used positive, "pleasant-toned" words?
3. Have you used "I appreciate," "please", and "thank you" somewhere in your message?
4. Would you enjoy reading what you have said?

9. Be concrete

Being concrete means providing crisp, vivid details the reader needs to understand the message fully.

🔑 Checklist for concreteness:

1. Have you given the crisp details the reader needs?
2. Have you made the details razor and needle-sharp?
3. Have you flashed word pictures, made facts vivid?

📌 Example of concreteness:

• Before: These brakes stop a car within a short distance.
• After: These brakes stop a 2-ton car traveling 60 miles an hour, within 240 feet.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Good writing requires more than just correct grammar; it demands a focus on the reader's needs, time, and understanding. A writer must be complete by including all necessary facts, concise by avoiding filler, creative in format, and considerate of the audience. Essential checks for correctness, credibility, courtesy, and concreteness ensure the message is accurate, trustworthy, engaging, and vivid, making it effective and actionable.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What does it mean to be "complete" in writing, and what is the first thing you should check?
2. Why is it important to be "concise," and what types of words should you avoid?
3. What are the four things you should check to ensure you are being "considerate" of your reader?
4. List the five items on the checklist for being "correct."
5. How does the lecture illustrate the difference between a vague statement and a "concrete" one? Provide the specific example.

📘 Lecture 6 — THE PROCESS OF WRITING

📖 Overview: This lecture outlines the complete writing process, from initial idea generation through final proofreading. It emphasizes that writing is not a linear, rigid formula but a flexible, recursive process involving invention, collection of ideas, organization, drafting, revising, and proofreading. Understanding this process helps writers overcome writer's block and produce more effective, purposeful content.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the six stages of the writing process: Invention (exploring the problem, making goals operational, generating ideas), Collection (internal sources including probing yourself, listing, and clustering), Organization (diagramming major points), Drafting, Revising, and Proofreading. It provides specific techniques for each stage, such as journalistic questions, brainstorming, and the twenty-question method for self-probing.

📝 Lecture Summary

INVENTION

"A writer keeps surprising himself... he doesn't know what he is saying until he sees it on the page." -- Thomas Williams. Invention is the initial stage where writers often experience a blank mind. Instead of panicking, writers should use specific strategies or techniques to get started. The key is to explore the problem, not just the topic.

First, consider the rhetorical situation by asking: Who is your reader? What is your purpose? Who are you, the writer? (What image or persona do you want to project?). Second, make your goals operational by asking how you can achieve your purpose and whether you can make a plan. Third, generate some ideas through techniques like brainstorming (keep writing, don't censor or evaluate, keep returning to the problem), talking to your reader (what questions would they ask? what different kinds of readers might you have?), and asking yourself questions using the journalistic questions (Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What?).

WHEN YOU START TO WRITE

You can try the textbook formula: state your thesis, write an outline, write the first draft, revise and polish — but that often doesn't work! Instead, try one or more of these strategies: Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject. There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, if your topic is "hostel food," ask "So what?" Do you want the reader to pity you? Analyze large-scale institutional cooking? Compare University Hostel 1's food to that served at Hostel 2? Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose. If you wanted to describe a movie as the best you've ever seen, would your comments go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?

Nutshell your whole idea: Tell it to someone in three or four sentences. Diagram your major points somehow: Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places.

COLLECTION

The first internal source of information is you yourself, using free writing, brain storming, and probing yourself. Probing yourself involves asking twenty specific types of questions adapted from Jacqueline Berke's Twenty Questions for the Writer:

1. What does X mean? (Definition)
2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis)
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)

LISTING: For the example topic "HOLIDAYS," you list out points to consider: good and bad holidays, school holidays, family holidays, holidays abroad, plans and preparations, special memories. CLUSTERING: This is a visual method where you place the main topic (e.g., "Holidays") in the center and branch out with related ideas (e.g., holidays abroad, bad holidays, good holidays, plans & preparations, public holidays, special memories) in a web-like diagram.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The writing process is not a rigid formula but a flexible, recursive cycle of invention, collection, organization, drafting, revising, and proofreading. Writers should begin by exploring the rhetorical situation (reader, purpose, persona) and generating ideas through brainstorming, journalistic questions, and the twenty-question probing technique. When starting to write, "nutshelling" your idea in 3-4 sentences and diagramming major points can replace the often-ineffective textbook formula. Collection relies heavily on internal sources through self-probing, listing, and clustering. The most critical skill is learning to ask the right questions at each stage to overcome writer's block and develop purposeful, well-structured writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. List the six stages of the writing process as presented in this lecture.
2. What are the three key questions a writer should ask to "explore the problem" during the invention stage?
3. What is the difference between listing and clustering as collection techniques?
4. According to the lecture, what is the "textbook formula" for writing, and why might it not work?
5. Name the author of Twenty Questions for the Writer and give three examples of questions from that framework.

📘 Lecture 7 — The Process of Writing II

📖 Overview: This lecture continues the exploration of the writing process by focusing on external sources of information, the organization of gathered material, and the subsequent stages of drafting, revising, and proofreading. It provides practical systems for locating and evaluating information, along with a structured checklist for ensuring a polished final piece.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers external sources of information (libraries, internet, and resource persons), including the Library of Congress Classification system and the simplified Dewey Decimal System. It then details the top ten search engines, lists highly valuable online links for journalists, and explains the process of organizing information through outlining. Finally, it discusses the stages of drafting, revising (focusing on higher-order concerns), and proofreading (with specific checklists for content, format, and mechanics).

📝 Lecture Summary

2. External source of information:

The lecture identifies three primary external sources for journalistic writing: 1) Libraries, 2) Internet, and 3) Resource persons (experts or individuals with relevant knowledge).

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSFICATION

A system used by libraries to organize books by subject. Each letter represents a broad category. For example, P stands for Language and Literature, Q for Science, and H for Social Sciences. Understanding this system helps a journalist quickly locate books on a specific topic.

SIMPLIFIED DEWEY DECIMAL SYSTEM

A simpler numerical classification system where each subject area is assigned a three-digit number range. For instance, 300 covers Social Sciences, 800 covers Literature, and 900 covers History.

Top ten search engines:

The lecture lists ten major search engines for internet research, noting that some are strictly search engines while others are directories.

1. Google
2. Alltheweb – Fast and clear.
3. Yahoo – Directories and search engine
4. Hotbot - Directories and search engine
5. About – sites vetted by humans
6. Excite - Directories and search engine
7. iWon
8. MSN
9. Completeplanet – directs to various databases
10. Altavista - Directories and search engine

Highly Valuable Links:

The lecture provides a list of specific, highly valuable online resources for journalists, including links for online newspapers, reference works like the Columbia Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Britannica, and style guides like The Elements of Style.

ORGANIZING

After collecting information, the next step is to organize it. This involves deciding where to place information in the argument and what to omit. The primary method suggested is outlining. The lecture describes the standard three-part structure for argumentative and narrative papers:

• The introduction grabs the reader's attention and introduces the main idea or claim, often as a thesis statement.
• The body consists of several supporting paragraphs that elaborate on the main claim.
• The conclusion wraps up the argument and reemphasizes the writer's main ideas.

DRAFTING:

The drafting stage is the actual writing of the paper. The lecture offers practical advice for this stage:

• Give yourself ample time to work on your project.
• Find a comfortable place to do your writing.
• Avoid distractions.
• Take breaks.

REVISING:

Revising involves reviewing higher-order concerns about the overall quality of the writing, such as:

• Clear communication of ideas
• Organization of paper
• Paragraph structure
• Strong introduction and conclusion

PROOFREADING:

Proofreading is the final, meticulous check for errors. The lecture structures this around three sensitive areas with self-questioning checklists.

A. CONTENT: Check if you stuck to your point, used good sources, organized carefully, checked facts, used illustrations, considered readers, and used sufficient detail.

B. FORMAT: Check for an appropriate title, correct use of quotations, headings and subheadings, labeled graphs, a bibliography, and numbered pages.

C. MECHANICS: Check for sentence completeness, consistent verb tense, consistent point of view, subject-verb agreement, proper pronoun use, correct spelling, correct punctuation and end marks, correct capitalization and underlining, paragraph indentation, and legibility.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The writing process extends beyond just writing; it begins with finding and evaluating external sources using systems like the Library of Congress Classification, Dewey Decimal System, or curated search engines. Once information is gathered, it must be organized, typically through outlining into an introduction, body, and conclusion, to create a coherent argument. The actual drafting phase benefits from a distraction-free environment and adequate time. However, the work doesn't stop there; effective revision requires a focus on high-order issues like idea clarity and organization, followed by meticulous proofreading to catch errors in content, format, and mechanics.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three main external sources of information for a journalist?
2. In the Library of Congress Classification, what subject does the letter "H" represent?
3. According to the lecture, what are the three main sections of an argumentative paper?
4. What is the difference between "revising" and "proofreading" as described in the lecture?
5. Name three of the ten specific questions a writer should ask themselves when proofreading for "Mechanics."

📘 Lecture 8 — WHAT ARE WORDS MADE OF?

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the fundamental building blocks of language by examining morphology — the study of word structure. It covers how words are formed through morphemes, prefixes, suffixes, compounding, and portmanteau words, and also delves into figurative language, collocations, and the difference between denotation and connotation. Understanding these elements is crucial for precise and effective journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with morphology and morphemes (free and bound), then examines word forms (noun, verb, adjective, adverb), portmanteau words, prefixes with a comprehensive list of meanings and examples, suffixes for nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, compounding, figurative vs. literal language, collocations and their types, and finally denotations versus connotations with examples of favorable, neutral, and unfavorable word choices.

📝 Lecture Summary

MORPHEMES

Morphology is the study of the structure of words. A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. For example, "dog" contains one morpheme, while "dogs" contains two ("dog" + "s"). The word "antidisestablishmentarianism" contains six morphemes: anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism.

A free morpheme can stand alone, such as dog, elephant, child. A bound morpheme cannot stand alone and must attach to another morpheme, such as s, ish, ness, ism.

🔑 Definition — Morpheme: The smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning.

🔑 Definition — Free Morpheme: A morpheme that can stand alone as a word. Example: dog.

🔑 Definition — Bound Morpheme: A morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attach to another morpheme. Example: -s in dogs.

HOW WORDS ARE FORMED

Words are formed through several processes: word forms, portmanteau words, prefixes, suffixes, and compounding.

Word Forms: A single base word can take different grammatical forms — noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. For example, from the verb decide: decision (noun), decisively (adverb), indecisive (adjective). Other examples: beauty → beautiful, beautician, beautify; pay → payment, payable, payee; describe → descriptive, description, indescribable.

PORTMANTEAU

A portmanteau word is derived by combining portions of two or more separate words, creating a blend that packs two meanings into one. Examples: Oxbridge (Oxford + Cambridge), brunch (breakfast + lunch), email (electronic + mail), fortnight (fourteen + nights), hassle (haggle + tussle), intercom (internal + communication).

🔑 Definition — Portmanteau: A word formed by combining portions of two or more separate words, blending their meanings.

PREFIXES

A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. The lecture provides an extensive list of common prefixes with their meanings and examples:

• a- (an-) : not, without — atheist, anaemic; also: to, towards — aside, aback
• ab- (abs-) : away, from — abdicate, abstract
• ad- (a-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, as-, at-) : movement to, change into — advance, ascend, assemble
• ante- : before, preceding — antecedent, ante-room
• anti- (ant-) : opposing, against — antibiotic, anticlimax
• be- : all over, completely — bespatter, bewitch; having, covered with — bejewelled
• com- (co-, col-, con-, cor-) : with, jointly, completely — combat, collude, confide
• contra- : against, opposite — contraceptive
• counter- : opposition, opposite direction — counter-attack
• de- : down, away — descend, deduct; removal, reversal — de-ice
• dia- (di-) : through, across — diagonal
• dis- (di-) : negation, removal — disadvantage, dismount
• en- (em-) : put into or on — engulf, enmesh; bring into the condition — enlighten
• ex- (e-, ef-) : out — exit, exclude; upward — exalt; previous — ex-wife
• extra- : outside, beyond — extracurricular
• hemi- : half — hemisphere
• hyper- : beyond, more than normal — hypersonic, hyperactive
• hypo- : under — hypodermic, hypothermia
• in- (il-, im-) : not, without — infertile, impossible; in, into, towards — influence, imbibe
• infra- : below — infrared, infrastructure
• inter- : between, among — interact, interchange
• intra- : inside, within — intramural, intravenous
• non- : absence, negation — non-smoker
• ob- (oc-, of-, op-) : blocking, against — obstruct, oppose
• out- : surpassing — outperform; external, away — outbuilding
• over- : excessively, completely — overconfident; upper, above — overcoat
• peri- : round, about — perimeter
• post- : after in time or order — postpone
• pre- : before in time, place, order — prelude, precondition
• pro- : favouring — pro-African; motion forwards — propulsion
• re- : again — repaint, reappraise
• semi- : half, partly — semicircle, semi-conscious
• sub- (suc-, suf-, sug-, sup-, sur-, sus-) : at a lower position — submarine; lower in rank — sub-lieutenant
• syn- (sym-) : in union, acting together — synchronize, symmetry
• trans- : across, beyond — transnational, transatlantic
• ultra- : beyond — ultraviolet; extreme — ultramicroscopic
• un- : not — unacceptable; reversal — unplug
• under- : beneath — underarm; lower in rank — undersecretary; not enough — underdeveloped

⚠️ Note: The origins of words are extremely complicated. Use this list as a guide only, as often what appears to be a prefix is not a prefix at all. This list does not include elements like "auto-" or "bio-" because these are "combining forms," not prefixes.

SUFFIXES

Suffixes are placed at the end of a word. They often indicate the part of speech.

Noun Suffixes (common endings for nouns):

• -dom: state or condition (wisdom); domain, position (kingdom)
• -ity: condition or quality of (capability, flexibility)
• -ment: act of; state of; result of (contentment)
• -sion, -tion: act of; state of (celebration)
• -ness: state of (toughness)
• -ance, -ence: act of; state of; quality of (assistance)
• -er, -or: one who; that which (fighter, actor)
• -ist: one who; that which (violinist)

Adjective Suffixes (common endings for adjectives):

• -ive: doing or tending toward doing (extensive, selective)
• -en: made of (wooden)
• -ic: characteristic of; like (heroic, poetic)
• -al: relating to (financial, manual)
• -able: able; can; or giving (portable, pleasurable)
• -y: having (hairy, rainy)
• -ous: full of; having (mysterious)
• -ful: full of; having (hopeful, beautiful)
• -less: without (powerless, homeless)

⚠️ Note: The suffix -ful is always spelled with one l; the word full has two.

Verb Suffixes (common endings for verbs):

• -en: to make (brighten, soften)
• -ize: to make (publicize)
• -ate: to have or be characterized by (activate, differentiate)
• -ify or -fy: to cause to become or to make (simplify)

Adverb Suffixes:

• -ly: almost always makes an adverb (quickly)

COMPOUNDING

Compounding involves joining two or more words to create a new word. Examples: news + stand + paper + clip → newsstand, newspaper, news clip; flower + petal + bud + pot → flower petal, flower bud, flower pot; hand + bag + shake + glove → handbag, handshake, hand glove; eye + color + brow + lid → eye color, eyebrow, eyelid; lady + bug + finger + purse → ladybug, ladyfinger, lady purse.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Literal language means exactly what it says, while figurative language uses words in a non-literal way to create a special effect or meaning.

Examples of literal vs. figurative:

1. "The robber struck me on the arm with a piece of wood" (literal) vs. "Suddenly a clever idea struck me" (figurative)
2. "Sharp knife" (literal) vs. "sharp tongue" (figurative)
3. "Tea is sweet" (literal) vs. "sweet baby" (figurative)
4. "Yacht sailed gracefully" (literal) vs. "he sailed through his exams" (figurative)
5. "Brush your hair" (literal) vs. "brush up your English" (figurative)
6. "Drop an idea" (figurative — meaning abandon)
7. "A glaring error" (figurative — meaning obvious)
8. "I ploughed my way through the Mathematics problems" (figurative)

COLLOCATIONS

Collocation is the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a common expression. When an expression is heard often, the words become 'glued' together in our minds. Examples: crystal clear, middle management, nuclear family, cosmetic surgery.

Some linguists argue that our mental lexicon is made up of many collocated words and phrases as well as individual items. Some words have different collocations reflecting different meanings, e.g., bank collocates with river and investment.

Types of Collocations:

1. Verb + noun: throw a party, accept responsibility
2. Adjective + noun: square meal, grim determination
3. Verb + adjective + noun: take vigorous exercise, make steady progress
4. Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, barely see
5. Adverb + adjective: utterly amazed, completely useless
6. Adverb + adjective + noun: totally unacceptable behavior
7. Adjective + preposition: guilty of, blamed for, happy about
8. Noun + noun: pay packet, window frame

🔑 Definition — Collocation: The relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a common expression.

DENOTATIONS AND CONNOTATIONS

Denotation is the literal meaning of a word, while connotation is the association (emotional or otherwise) that the word evokes. For example, for some people the word PIG might have connotations of dirty and smelly; others will think of inquisitive or cheeky. Similarly, some see TERRORISTS where others see FREEDOM FIGHTERS.

🔑 Definition — Denotation: The literal meaning of a word. 🔑 Definition — Connotation: An association (emotional or otherwise) which the word evokes.

💡 Why this matters: In journalistic writing, word choice carries powerful connotations that can shape reader perception. Choosing between "vagrants," "people with no fixed address," or "homeless" can convey negative, neutral, or positive attitudes.

Examples of Favorable, Neutral, and Unfavorable Connotations:

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture establishes that words are not arbitrary units but are built from morphemes — the smallest meaning-bearing elements — which can be free (standing alone) or bound (attached to others). Word formation processes include using prefixes and suffixes to modify meaning and part of speech, blending words into portmanteaus like brunch and email, and compounding words like newspaper and eyebrow. The distinction between literal and figurative language is critical for precise writing, while collocations — words that naturally pair together — reveal how language operates in fixed expressions rather than isolated items. Finally, denotation and connotation remind writers that words carry both literal meanings and emotional associations, making careful word choice essential in journalistic writing to convey the intended tone and avoid bias.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme? Give two examples of each.
2. Identify the prefixes in the following words and state their meanings: antibiotic, postpone, transatlantic, unacceptable.
3. What is a portmanteau word? Provide three examples from the lecture and explain which words are blended to form each.
4. Explain the difference between denotation and connotation. Using the example of "pig" or "terrorist/freedom fighter," show how the same word can have different connotations for different people.
5. What is a collocation? List three different types of collocations and provide an example for each type from the lecture.

📘 Lecture 9 — TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

📖 Overview: This lecture examines dictionaries as essential language tools for writers. It categorizes dictionaries by type—unabridged, abridged, historical, and specialized—explains how to use them effectively, and details the kinds of information they provide. Understanding these distinctions is critical for journalistic precision and language accuracy.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture covers the types of dictionaries including unabridged, abridged, historical, slang and usage guides, and thesauruses. It explains how to use a dictionary by navigating preliminary, auxiliary, and appendix pages. The lecture details kinds of information found in dictionaries, such as guide words, pronunciation, syllabication, derivation, etymology, synonyms, and antonyms. It also discusses purchasing criteria, the history of dictionaries from William Caxton to Noah Webster and the Oxford English Dictionary, and the overall value of dictionaries as reference tools for writers.

📝 Lecture Summary

TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

Unabridged dictionaries are comprehensive collections of all known words at the time of printing. They are commonly found in libraries on dictionary stands. Writers must check the publication date when looking for new words or slang expressions. Common titles include Webster's Third New International Dictionary and the Random House Dictionary.

🔑 Definition — Unabridged dictionary: A dictionary that contains all words known to the language at the time of publication.

An abridged dictionary has been shortened by including only the most common words or the vocabulary of a specific group. For example, an abridged collegiate dictionary contains words needed by the average college student. Common titles include Random House College edition, Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Funk & Wagnalls Standard College Dictionary, and the American Heritage Dictionary.

A historical dictionary gives the etymology or derivation of words. Words at the time of Shakespeare may have different meanings today, so reading historical materials requires these specialized dictionaries. Examples include the Oxford English Dictionary, Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles, and Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles.

Some dictionaries emphasize certain aspects of the language. Slang includes popular expressions not considered proper in formal use, and some slang may have vulgar, obscene, or profane connotations. In academic settings, formal language usually does not include slang or non-standard forms of expression. Usage guides set the standards for formal writing. A thesaurus is a dictionary that gives synonyms.

🔑 Definition — Slang: Popular expressions which may not be considered proper in formal use. 🔑 Definition — Thesaurus: A dictionary that gives synonyms.

USING A DICTIONARY

Remember that preliminary pages (first pages) often explain abbreviations and other special features. End pages may have tables or charts. The auxiliary pages (other pages) may also have information, such as a list of colleges or cities. A separate appendix may give geographical and biographical entries. The table of contents or list of illustrations will help locate information on these pages. Especially school textbooks may have a vocabulary or glossary section. A glossary is a list of technical words or expressions used in a field of study or book. Dictionary order has become a synonym for alphabetical order.

🔑 Definition — Glossary: A list of technical words or expressions used in a field of study or book.

KINDS OF INFORMATION

Elementary students are often tested on their ability to use dictionaries, including skills with alphabetical order, guide words, pronunciation, syllabication, derivation, etymology, synonyms, and antonyms.

Guide words are placed at the top of a page to help the user find the correct page alphabetically.

Pronunciation involves using various symbols to represent sounds. News broadcasting organizations may have developed their own dictionaries for names of people and places.

Syllabication shows how a word is divided when separated at the end of a line of print.

Derivation traces what root words are used to form the word. Understanding from which language a word comes helps explain differences in phonetic rules. For example, "Goethe" may not seem pronounced as spelled except to those who understand German. The English language is a result of the many cultures from which it is drawn.

Etymology is the study of a word's history, including both derivation and how the word's usage has changed. Usage reflects how different areas use words in unique ways.

Meaning or definition is explained through examples. Synonyms (words with the same meaning) and antonyms (words with the opposite meaning) also contribute to an accurate definition. Illustrative quotations, such as those from Shakespeare, give insight into meaning and derivation. Maps and plates of illustration provide reference points; for example, maps can show where Guam is located in relation to other islands.

Geographical facts and history give the significance of places; Guam was the site of a major battle in World War II.

Biographical facts are needed because many words have origins in personal names. A "curie" is one word associated with the scientists who discovered it. A dictionary that contains geographical and biographical information is called an encyclopedic dictionary. Some dictionaries may have a separate section with geographical and biographical information.

🔑 Definition — Guide words: Words placed at the top of a dictionary page to help the user find the correct page alphabetically. 🔑 Definition — Etymology: The study of a word's history, including both derivation and how the word's usage has changed. 🔑 Definition — Encyclopedic dictionary: A dictionary that contains geographical and biographical information.

PURCHASING A DICTIONARY

Check if your dictionary at minimum offers:

1. Publication date
2. Full definition and examples
3. Pronunciations (more than one)
4. Word class
5. Label (register)

HISTORY AND VALUE

William Caxton (c1483) produced a French-English dictionary. Travellers needed a bilingual dictionary when visiting countries with a different language. Ancient writings were not useful until they could be translated.

The discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 helped unlock many ancient languages. The stone was written in Greek and two forms of Egyptian. In 1822, the messages were finally deciphered.

In 1755, Samuel Johnson produced the earliest English language dictionary. A facsimile reprint is available, showing letters as they appeared in 1755. Alternate spellings are given without preference, and some word derivation is shown.

Noah Webster printed the first modern dictionary in 1828, which set the standard for spelling and pronunciation. His dictionaries also distinguished American word usage from usage common in England.

Sir James Murray gathered historical background on words. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of words and their usage through time with examples. While British usage is emphasized, recent editions include English usage in other parts of the world. This dictionary is now available as an Internet subscription.

SUMMARY

Dictionaries are important reference tools for writers to use. Different kinds of dictionaries are available for various needs.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Dictionaries are essential language tools for every writer, with different types—unabridged, abridged, historical, and specialized—serving distinct purposes. The most critical points are understanding how to navigate preliminary, auxiliary, and appendix pages to find information, and knowing the different kinds of information a dictionary provides, including guide words, pronunciation, syllabication, derivation, etymology, synonyms, and antonyms. For purchasing, a reliable dictionary must include publication date, full definitions with examples, pronunciations, word class, and label. Finally, the historical evolution from Caxton and Johnson to Webster and the Oxford English Dictionary demonstrates how dictionaries have standardized language and preserved linguistic heritage.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between an unabridged dictionary and an abridged dictionary?
2. What are five minimum features a dictionary should have when purchasing?
3. Who produced the earliest English language dictionary, and in what year?
4. What is the purpose of guide words in a dictionary?
5. How does the Oxford English Dictionary differ from a standard dictionary?

📘 Lecture 10 — Parts of Speech

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the fundamental building blocks of English grammar—the eight parts of speech. It explains their categories, functions, and usage in sentence construction, which is essential for clear and effective journalistic writing. Understanding these parts of speech helps writers craft precise, grammatically correct, and engaging sentences.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture divides parts of speech into two divisions: picture words (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs) and function words (Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections). It defines each part of speech in detail, covering nouns (including gender, plurals, possessives, and types like proper, common, concrete, abstract, countable, non-countable, and collective), verbs, adjectives (including possessive, demonstrative, and indefinite), adverbs, pronouns (personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, indefinite, and reflexive), prepositions, conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating, and correlative), and interjections, with numerous examples for each.

📝 Lecture Summary

Parts of speech can be divided into two distinct divisions:

The lecture begins by categorizing the eight parts of speech into two main groups. The first group, picture words, includes Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs. The second group, function words, includes Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

WHAT IS A NOUN?

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words small children learn and can function in a sentence as a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, adjective, or adverb.

🔑 Definition — Noun: a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea. 📌 Example: Late last year our neighbors bought a goat. / Portia White was an opera singer. / Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

Noun Gender: Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women, though some have gendered forms, e.g., "author" vs. "authoress," "waiter" vs. "waitress."

Noun Plurals: Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es," e.g., truth → truths, box → boxes.

Possessive Nouns: In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show ownership or close relationship, usually by adding an apostrophe and the letter "s." 🔑 Definition — Possessive Case: a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. 📌 Example: The red suitcase is Cassandra's. / The children's mittens were scattered. / The dogs' barking.

Types of Nouns: Proper Nouns: A proper noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing and is always written with a capital letter. This includes days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts, and their adherents. It is the opposite of a common noun. 📌 Example: The Maroons were transported from Jamaica. / Many people dread Monday mornings. / Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.

Common Nouns: A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense. 📌 Example: According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun names anything you can perceive through your physical senses (touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell). It is the opposite of an abstract noun. 📌 Example: The judge handed the files to the clerk. / The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover.

Abstract Nouns: An abstract noun names anything you cannot perceive through your five physical senses. It is the opposite of a concrete noun. 📌 Example: Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought. / Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Countable Nouns: A countable noun (or count noun) has both a singular and a plural form and names anything you can count. 📌 Example: We painted the table red and the chairs blue. / The oak tree lost three branches.

Non-Countable Nouns: A non-countable noun (or mass noun) does not have a plural form and refers to something you could not usually count. 📌 Example: Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen. / We decided to sell the furniture.

Collective Nouns: A collective noun names a group of things, animals, or persons. You usually think of the group as a whole, as one unit. 📌 Example: The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture. / The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

WHAT IS A VERB?

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and expresses actions, events, or states of being. It is the critical element of the predicate. 🔑 Definition — Verb: asserts something about the subject of the sentence and expresses actions, events, or states of being. 📌 Example: Dracula bites his victims on the neck. / My first teacher was Miss Crawford. / Karl Creelman bicycled around the world.

WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or pronoun it modifies. 🔑 Definition — Adjective: modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. 📌 Example: The truck-shaped balloon floated. / Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wallpaper. / The coal mines are dark and dank.

Possessive Adjectives: A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar to a possessive pronoun but is used as an adjective to modify a noun or noun phrase. 📌 Example: What is your phone number? / The bakery sold his favorite type of bread.

Demonstrative Adjectives: The demonstrative adjectives ("this," "these," "that," "those," "what") are identical to the demonstrative pronouns but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases. 📌 Example: This apartment needs to be fumigated. / Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.*

Indefinite Adjectives: An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase. 📌 Example: Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed. / I will send you any mail. / They found a few goldfish.

WHAT IS AN ADVERB?

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. It indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," and "how much." While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "-ly" suffix, most must be identified by grammatical relationships. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. 🔑 Definition — Adverb: can modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb; indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree. 📌 Example: The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes. (modifies "made," indicating manner). / Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.

WHAT IS A PRONOUN?

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" make sentences less cumbersome and repetitive. Grammarians classify pronouns into several types.

Personal Pronouns: A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. 🔑 Definition — Personal Pronoun: refers to a specific person or thing, changing form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. 📐 Table — Personal Pronouns by Case and Form:

Demonstrative Pronouns: A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things nearby; "that" and "those" refer to things farther away. 📌 Example: This must not continue. / This is puny; that is the tree I want.

Interrogative Pronouns: An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. They are "who," "whom," "which," "what," and compounds like "whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever." 📌 Example: Which wants to see the dentist first? / Who wrote the novel Rockbound? / To whom did you give the paper?

Relative Pronouns: A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," "which," "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever." 📌 Example: You may invite whomever you like. / The candidate who wins is not always elected. / Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.

Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun refers to an identifiable but not specified person or thing, conveying the idea of all, any, none, or some. Common examples include "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." 📌 Example: Many were invited to the lunch. / The office had been searched and everything was thrown. / They found none.

Reflexive Pronouns: A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the clause or sentence. They are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." 📌 Example: Diabetics give themselves insulin shots. / I asked myself why.

WHAT IS A PREPOSITION?

A preposition links nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial, or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence. A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object, and any associated adjectives or adverbs; it can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb. 🔑 Definition — Preposition: links nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence, usually indicating temporal, spatial, or logical relationship. 📌 Example: The book is on the table. / She read the book during class. / The children climbed the mountain without fear (prepositional phrase "without fear" acts as an adverb).

WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION?

A conjunction is used to link words, phrases, and clauses. 📌 Example: I ate the pizza and the pasta. / Call the movers when you are ready.

Coordinating Conjunctions: A coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," "yet") is used to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. 📌 Example: Lilacs and violets are usually purple. / This movie is interesting, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.

Subordinating Conjunctions: A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent and dependent clauses. Common examples include "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while." 📌 Example: After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent. / If the paperwork arrives, your cheque will be mailed.

Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs and are used to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor," "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." 📌 Example: Both my grandfather and my father worked in the plant. / Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop. / The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighboring pub.

WHAT IS AN INTERJECTION?

An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. An interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark and is uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations. 🔑 Definition — Interjection: a word added to a sentence to convey emotion, not grammatically related to other parts of the sentence. 📌 Example: Ouch, that hurt! / Oh no, I forgot the exam. / Hey! Put that down! / I think taxes are too high, good lord!

⭐ Key Takeaways

The eight parts of speech are divided into picture words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and function words (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections), each serving a specific role in sentence structure. Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas and have many sub-types (proper, common, concrete, abstract, countable, non-countable, collective) with rules for gender, plurals, and possession. Verbs are the core of the predicate, expressing actions or states of being, while adjectives and adverbs modify nouns and verbs respectively, providing description and detail. Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition, and prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections link words and clauses or express emotion, making sentences cohesive and expressive.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two main divisions of parts of speech, and which parts belong to each?
2. List five different types of nouns and provide a definition and example for each.
3. What is the primary difference between a possessive adjective and a demonstrative adjective?
4. Explain the function of a subordinating conjunction and give two examples.
5. How does a reflexive pronoun differ from a personal pronoun in its use within a sentence?

📘 Lecture 11 — BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the concept of clauses as fundamental grammatical units in journalistic writing. It explains the five basic clause patterns used in the English language, teaching students how to identify the subject, verb, complement, object, and object complement in a sentence. Mastering these patterns is essential for constructing clear, grammatically correct sentences in journalism.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by explaining the Language Chain from grapheme to clause. It then defines a clause as a unit that includes a subject and a predicate and expresses a proposition. The core content is the detailed explanation and exemplification of the five basic clause patterns: S+V, S+V+C, S+V+O, S+V+IO+DO, and S+V+O+OC. The lecture concludes with a practical exercise for identifying these patterns in sample sentences.

📝 Lecture Summary

BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS

Take a look of this the Language Chain. Start from the bottom and move up. (Clue: Grapheme into morpheme into word into phrase and this into clause.)

A clause is a grammatical unit that: Includes a subject and a predicate, and Expresses a proposition (idea).

There are five basic clause patterns:

1. S + V: The children played.
2. S + V + C: You are beautiful.
3. S + V + O: Jinnah inspired everyone.
4. S + V + IO + DO: Ali gave his friend a ruby ring.
5. S + V + O + OC: Ali calls his Mom a saint.

EXERCISE: Identify the basic clause patterns.

1. We painted the town red. Answer for example: We (S) painted (V; action verb) the town (DO) red (IO).

Now do yourself.

2. We passed the boy collection basket.
3. We passed the collection basket.
4. Adam appears interested in the project.
5. Hussan is a Math teacher.
6. His motive was mysterious.
7. I bought the suit.
8. The woman in the row coughed.
9. Caroline gave Steven a choice.

💡 Why this matters: Being able to identify these basic clause patterns is a foundational skill for analyzing and constructing clear, grammatically correct sentences, which is crucial for effective journalistic writing.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember the five essential clause patterns: S+V, S+V+C, S+V+O, S+V+IO+DO, and S+V+O+OC. A clause is defined by having a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete idea. The verb type determines the pattern; linking verbs (e.g., "is") take a complement, while transitive verbs (e.g., "inspired") take an object. Distinguishing between a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO) is critical, as seen in pattern 4. The ability to parse a sentence into its component parts (S, V, O, C) is a key skill tested in this lecture.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two essential elements that every clause must have?
2. List the five basic clause patterns taught in this lecture.
3. In the sentence "Ali calls his Mom a saint," what is the clause pattern and what does "OC" stand for?
4. What is the difference between a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO) in pattern S+V+IO+DO?
5. Identify the basic clause pattern for the sentence: "The woman in the row coughed."

📘 Lecture 12 — Active Voice, Passive Voice

📖 Overview: This lecture explains the two special forms for verbs called voice: active and passive. It details the structure of each, how to conjugate verbs in the passive voice across all tenses, and the specific reasons a writer would choose one over the other. Mastering this concept is crucial for clear and effective journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining active and passive voice, showing how the subject and object change roles. It then lists all active tenses with examples, explains the simple structure of the passive voice (subject + auxiliary verb 'be' + main past participle), and outlines the main uses of the passive voice. Finally, it provides a full conjugation table for the passive voice across all tenses, including simple, continuous, and perfect forms.

📝 Lecture Summary

ACTIVE AND PASSSIVE VOICE

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice
2. Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice that we use most of the time. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

• Example: Cats (subject) eat (verb) fish (object).

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

• Example: Fish (subject) are eaten (verb) by cats (object).

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

• Active: Everybody drinks water.
• Passive: Water is drunk by everybody.

🔑 Definition — Voice: A special form of a verb that indicates whether the subject performs the action (active) or receives the action (passive).

🔑 Definition — Active Voice: The "normal" voice where the subject performs the action of the verb onto the object.

🔑 Definition — Passive Voice: The voice where the subject receives the action of the verb, and the object of the active verb becomes the subject.

1. ACTIVE TENSES:

This section lists all active tenses with their common uses and examples.

• Simple Present: Used for present action/condition, general truths, non-action/habitual action, and future time.
  • Examples: "I hear you." / "There are thirty days in September." / "I like music." / "The train leaves at 4:00 p.m."
• Present Progressive: Used for activity in progress and verbs of perception.
  • Examples: "I am playing soccer now." / "He is feeling sad."
• Simple Past: Used for a completed action or completed condition.
  • Examples: "We visited the museum yesterday." / "The weather was rainy last week."
• Past Progressive: Used for a past action that took place over a period of time, or a past action interrupted by another.
  • Examples: "They were climbing for twenty-seven days." / "We were eating dinner when she told me."
• Future (with will/won't or going to): Used for activity or event that will or won't happen in the future, or future in relation to circumstances in the present.
  • Examples: "I'll get up late tomorrow." / "I'm going to get something to eat."
• Present Perfect: Used with verbs of state that begin in the past and lead up to the present, to express habitual or continued action, or with events occurring at an indefinite time in the past (with ever, never, before).
  • Examples: "He has lived here for many years." / "He has worn glasses all his life." / "Have you ever been to Tokyo before?"
• Present Perfect Progressive: Used to express duration of an action that began in the past, has continued into the present, and may continue into the future.
  • Example: "David has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet."
• Past Perfect: Used to describe a past event or condition completed before another event in the past, and in reported speech.
  • Examples: "When I arrived home, he had already called." / "Jane said that she had gone to the movies."
• Future Perfect: Used to express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future.
  • Examples: "By next month we will have finished this job." / "He won't have finished his work until 2:00."

2. PASSIVE VOICE

The structure of the passive voice is very simple: Subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle). The main verb is always in its past participle form.

Examples:

• Water (subject) is (auxiliary) drunk (past participle) by everyone.
• 100 people (subject) are (auxiliary) employed (past participle) by this company.
• I (subject) am (auxiliary) paid (past participle) in euro.
• We (subject) are (auxiliary) not paid (past participle) in dollars.
• Are they (subject) paid (past participle) in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:

• we want to make the active object more important.
• we do not know the active subject.

Examples:

• "President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald." (Making the object, President Kennedy, more important).
• "My wallet has been stolen." (The active subject is unknown).

💡 Why this matters: Journalists use the passive voice to shift focus. If the victim of a crime is more important than the perpetrator (who may be unknown), the passive voice is the correct tool.

Conjugation for the Passive Voice

We can form the passive in any tense. Conjugation is easy because the main verb is always in its past participle form, and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb be.

• Infinitive: to be washed
• Simple Present: I wash it (Active). It is washed (Passive).
• Simple Past: I washed it (Active). It was washed (Passive).
• Simple Future: I will wash it (Active). It will be washed (Passive).
• Conditional: I would wash it (Active). It would be washed (Passive).
• Present Continuous: I am washing it (Active). It is being washed (Passive).
• Past Continuous: I was washing it (Active). It was being washed (Passive).
• Future Continuous: I will be washing it (Active). It will be being washed (Passive).
• Conditional Continuous: I would be washing it (Active). It would be being washed (Passive).
• Present Perfect Simple: I have washed it (Active). It has been washed (Passive).
• Past Perfect Simple: I had washed it (Active). It had been washed (Passive).
• Future Perfect Simple: I will have washed it (Active). It will have been washed (Passive).
• Conditional Perfect Simple: I would have washed it (Active). It would have been washed (Passive).
• Present Perfect Continuous: I have been washing it (Active). It has been being washed (Passive).
• Past Perfect Continuous: I had been washing it (Active). It had been being washed (Passive).
• Future Perfect Continuous: I will have been washing it (Active). It will have been being washed (Passive).
• Conditional Perfect Continuous: I would have been washing it (Active). It would have been being washed (Passive).

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical point is the structural difference: active voice uses a subject performing an action on an object (Subject + Verb + Object), while passive voice uses a subject receiving an action (Subject + 'be' + Past Participle). The decision to use passive voice is strategic, either to emphasize the recipient of the action or because the actor is unknown. All passive tenses are formed by conjugating the auxiliary verb 'be' while the main verb remains in its past participle form. Mastering the conjugation table for all tenses is essential for clear journalistic writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the structural formula for the passive voice?
2. In the sentence "The window was broken," is the subject of the sentence performing or receiving the action?
3. Why might a journalist choose to write "The city was evacuated" instead of "The mayor evacuated the city"?
4. How do you form the present continuous passive tense (e.g., "The house is being painted")?
5. What is the past participle of the verb "to steal," and how would you use it in a passive voice sentence about a stolen wallet?

📘 Lecture 13 — MODIFIERS AND SENTENCE TYPES

📖 Overview: This lecture covers the grammatical structures that add detail and complexity to writing. It first explains the four types of modifiers (adjectives, adverbs, appositives, and prepositional phrases) that "decorate" a basic clause. It then classifies sentences by structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex) and by purpose (declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory), which is essential for varying sentence flow in journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture examines modifiers, which are words or phrases that describe the kernel (basic clause). It details four types: adjective modifiers (modify nouns/pronouns), adverb modifiers (modify verbs), appositive modifiers (noun phrases that rename other nouns), and prepositional modifiers (direction/relationship words). It then covers sentence classification by structure: simple (one independent clause), compound (two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinator), complex (one independent clause plus a subordinate clause), and compound-complex (two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause). Finally, it categorizes sentences by purpose: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

📝 Lecture Summary

MODIFIERS

Modifiers are parts that modify or describe the kernel (the basic clause). These words can be thought of as decorations because they elaborate on the essential parts of the clause.

ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS

They modify the meaning of a noun or pronoun by providing information to give it a more specific meaning.

• Example: This is an aggressive team. / The team is aggressive.
• Example: She has a terrific attitude. / Her attitude is terrific.
• Example: It is a beautiful sculpture. / The sculpture is beautiful.

🔑 Definition — Adjective Modifier: A word that modifies a noun or pronoun, giving it a more specific meaning.

ADVREB MODIFIERS

They modify verbs or give more meanings to verbs. They can appear almost anywhere in a sentence.

• The sucked their thumbs loudly. (adverb of manner)
• I tiptoed quietly into the corridor. (adverb of manner)
• Eventually we learned the truth. (adverb of time)
• The doctor later spoke to the press. (adverb of time)
• She spends too much time there. (adverb of place)
• The secretary delivered the package here in the early evening. (adverb of place)
• She never smokes in public. (adverb of frequency)

🔑 Definition — Adverb Modifier: A word that modifies a verb, giving it more meaning regarding manner, time, place, or frequency.

APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS

They are noun phrases that follow and describe other nouns.

• George Washington, the first president of the United States, loved peanut soup.
• Andrew Johnson, a skilled tailor, made most of his own clothes.
• The child, intelligent and strong, took after her parents.
• The woman, cautiously at first, planted the seeds under a thin layer of reddish dirt.

🔑 Definition — Appositive Modifier: A noun phrase that follows and describes another noun.

PREPOSITIONAL MODIFIERS

They are direction or relationship words.

• The boy dialed 911 in a panic.
• The man wrote his novel at a seaside hotel.
• My mother graduated from the law school in May.

🔑 Definition — Prepositional Modifier: A phrase that shows direction or relationship between elements in a sentence.

SENTENCE TYPES

Sentences are classified by structure into four types.

SIMPLE

Contains one independent clause only.

• Without music, life would be a mistake.
• Bob went to the store.
• Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner near the center of town to buy groceries and to get some drinks for the party.

  (This last sentence is quite long but is still a simple sentence, as there is only one clause: Subject + Verb.)

🔑 Definition — Simple Sentence: A sentence consisting of only one independent clause.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, so, yet, for.

• One arrow is easily broken, but you can’t break a bundle of ten.
• Bob went to the store, and Sue went to the office.
• The negotiations were successful, so the diplomats returned to their homes.
• We can go to party, or we can go to the dance.
• The negotiations ended successfully; therefore, the fighting stopped.

🔑 Definition — Compound Sentence: A sentence with two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

Contains one independent clause with one or more subordinate clauses joined by a subordinator.

• If you scatter thorns, don’t go bare foot.
• Because the problem proved difficult, they decided to form a committee.
• The proposal [that] we wrote was accepted.
• The issue, [which] we thought we had solved, came back to haunt us.

Important subordinators to make complex sentences:

• Time: when, while, since, before, after, until, once
• Place: where, wherever
• Cause: because, since, as, now that, inasmuch as
• Condition: if, unless, on condition that
• Contrast/Concession: although, even though, despite, in spite of
• Adversative: while, where, whereas
• Other: that, which, who, whoever, whom, what, why, how…

🔑 Definition — Complex Sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses joined by a subordinator.

📐 Formula: [Independent Clause] + [Subordinator] + [Subordinate Clause] → A complex sentence shows a relationship of time, cause, condition, or contrast between clauses.

COMPPOUND-COMPLEX

Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinating clause.

• Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.
• The proposal that we wrote was accepted, and we started the project.

🔑 Definition — Compound-Complex Sentence: A sentence with at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

SENTENCE PURPOSE

Sentences are also classified by their rhetorical function.

DECLARATIVE

To make statements.

• The echo always has the last word.

IMPERATIVE

To issue requests or commands.

• Love your neighbor.

INTEROGATIVE

To ask questions.

• Are second thoughts always wisest?

EXCLAMATORY

To make exclamations.

• I want to wash the flag, not burn it!

🔑 Definition — Sentence Purpose: The function a sentence serves: making a statement (Declarative), issuing a command (Imperative), asking a question (Interrogative), or expressing strong emotion (Exclamatory).

💡 Why this matters: Understanding both sentence structure and purpose allows a journalist to control the rhythm, clarity, and impact of their writing, from simple news leads to complex explanatory pieces.

⭐ Key Takeaways

1. Modifiers are decorations that elaborate on the kernel (basic clause); the four types are adjectives (modify nouns), adverbs (modify verbs), appositives (rename nouns), and prepositional phrases (show direction/relationship).
2. Sentence structure is determined by clauses: a simple sentence has one independent clause; a compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinator (and, but, or, so, yet, for); a complex sentence has one independent clause plus a subordinate clause joined by a subordinator (e.g., because, if, when); and a compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
3. Simple sentences can be long (e.g., Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner…) as long as they contain only one subject-verb unit.
4. Sentence purpose is a separate classification from structure: Declarative makes a statement, Interrogative asks a question, Imperative gives a command, and Exclamatory expresses strong emotion.
5. Appositive modifiers are noun phrases that rename and describe the noun they follow, while prepositional modifiers show relationships like location, time, or manner.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the four types of modifiers described in this lecture?
2. How do you distinguish a compound sentence from a complex sentence?
3. Give an example of a compound-complex sentence, identifying the independent and subordinate clauses.
4. What is the function of an appositive modifier?
5. Classify the sentence “Are second thoughts always wisest?” by its purpose (Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative, or Exclamatory).

📘 Lecture 14 — Reported Speech

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on reported speech (also known as indirect speech), which is a grammatical structure used to report what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English. Learning the rules for converting direct speech into indirect speech is crucial for journalistic writing, as it allows writers to accurately and concisely convey statements made by sources.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by contrasting direct and indirect speech examples. It then explains the tense changes required when the reporting verb is in the past tense, and when the reporting verb is in the present, present perfect, or future tense. The core of the lecture provides detailed rules for changing direct speech into indirect speech, covering pronoun changes (first, second, and third person), adjective and adverb changes (e.g., this→that, here→there, now→then), and verb changes (e.g., see→saw→had seen). Finally, it covers special cases including indirect questions (yes/no and wh- questions) and direct commands.

📝 Lecture Summary

Direct Speech Indirect Speech:

The lecture begins by comparing a direct quote and its indirect version.

🔑 Definition — Direct Speech: The exact words spoken by someone, enclosed in quotation marks.

🔑 Definition — Indirect Speech (Reported Speech): A sentence reporting what someone has said, without using their exact words.

📌 Example:

• Direct: The speaker said, “When the inquiry was set up last year, the Government was prompted by both national and local motives.”
• Indirect: The speaker said that when the inquiry had been set up in the preceding year the Government had been prompted by both national and local motives.

If the reporting verb (e.g., said) is in the past, the reported clause is usually moved one step back into the past from the original. For example:

• He said the test was difficult.
• She said she watched TV every day.
• Jack said he came to school every day.

If the reporting verb (e.g., says) is in Simple Present, Present Perfect, or Future, the tense of the original statement is retained. For example:

• He says the test is difficult.
• She has said that she watches TV every day.
• Jack will say that he comes to school every day.

If reporting a general truth, the present tense will be retained. For example: The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.

RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT INTO INDIRECT:

1. Pronoun Change:

The rule for pronoun changes in reported speech is:

• First person pronouns (I, we, my, our, me, us) change according to the subject of the reporting verb.
• Second person pronouns (you, your) change according to the object of the reporting verb.
• Third person pronouns (he, she, it, they, him, her, its, their) do not change.

📌 Example:

1. He said, “I like you.” → He told me that he liked me.
   • Here, 'I' (first person) changes to 'he' (subject of reporting verb). 'You' (second person) changes to 'me' (object of reporting verb).
2. He said, “I will accept your offer.” → He told me that he would accept my offer.

2. Adjective and adverb changes:

Specific time and place words change when converting from direct to indirect speech.

• This becomes that
• These becomes those
• Here becomes there
• Now becomes then
• Today becomes that day
• Yesterday becomes the preceding day or previous day
• Tomorrow becomes the next day or following day

3. Verb changes:

The tense of the verb is usually shifted one step back into the past.

• See (present) becomes saw (past)
• Saw becomes had seen
• Is seen becomes was seen
• Has seen becomes had seen
• Was seeing becomes had been seen
• Shall / will becomes should / would
• Be becomes were
• Can / may becomes could / might

📌 Example:

• Direct: “In many parts of the country farmers who were formerly ploughing nearly all their land now have most of it under grass.”
• Indirect: He said that in many parts of the country farmers who had formerly been ploughing nearly all their land then had most of it under grass

💡 Why this matters: Correctly shifting tenses and time/place adverbs is the core of accurate reported speech. Getting this wrong can change the meaning of a quote and make the journalist appear unprofessional.

Indirect Questions

When reporting questions, sentence order changes from a question to a statement. For yes/no questions, connect the reported question using 'if'. For wh- questions (why, where, when, etc.), use the question word.

📌 Example:

• Yes/No Question: She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" → She asked me if I wanted to come with her.
• Wh- Question: Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" → Dave asked me where I had gone the previous weekend.
• Wh- Question: He asked, "Why are you studying English?" → She asked me why I was studying English.
• Yes/No Question: “Will he come?” → He asked would he come.

Direct commands:

Direct commands can be reported in several ways.

📌 Example:

• Direct: “Give all the help you can.”
• Indirect: He asked that they should give all the help they could. OR He asked them to give all the help they could. OR Let them give all the help they could.

Desires:

Exclamations or desires are reported with a verb like 'exclaimed'.

📌 Example:

• Direct: “Hurrah! We have won the match.”
• Indirect: They exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.

Check again:

The lecture provides a final check of key examples to reinforce the rules.

• He said, "I live in Paris." → He said he lived in Paris.
• He said, "I am cooking dinner." → He said he was cooking dinner.
• He said, "I have visited London twice." → He said he had visited London twice.
• He said, "I went to New York last week." → He said he had gone to New York the week before.
• He said, "I had already eaten." → He said he had already eaten.
• He said, "I am going to find a new job." → He said he was going to find a new job.
• He said, "I will give Jack a call." → He said he would give Jack a call.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical points to remember for the exam are the systematic changes required for converting direct speech to reported speech. First, the pronoun change rule: first-person pronouns change according to the subject, second-person according to the object, and third-person pronouns remain unchanged. Second, time and place adverbs must be shifted logically (e.g., 'now' to 'then', 'yesterday' to 'the previous day'). Third, the verb tense is typically pulled one step into the past when the reporting verb is in the past tense, except for universal truths. For questions, remember to use 'if' for yes/no questions and the original question word for wh- questions, always changing the word order to a statement. Finally, memorize the common tense and adverb shifts as these are the most frequently tested items.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the rule for changing the pronoun "I" in reported speech when the reporting verb's subject is "the man"?
2. How does the tense of the verb change in reported speech when the reporting verb (e.g., "say") is in the present tense?
3. Convert the following question into reported speech: "Where do you live?" she asked.
4. What happens to the words "today" and "tomorrow" when they are converted from direct to indirect speech?
5. When reporting a universal truth like "The sun rises in the east," what must you remember to do with the tense?

📘 Lecture 15 — Grammatical Sentence – Issues

📖 Overview: This lecture addresses critical grammatical issues in sentence construction, focusing on two main areas: subject-verb agreement and correct pronoun usage. Mastering these rules is fundamental for clear, professional, and grammatically correct journalistic writing, as errors in these areas can undermine credibility and confuse the reader.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers six main rules for subject-verb agreement (G1-a to G1-j), including agreement with intervening words, compound subjects, indefinite pronouns, collective nouns, inverted word order, and titles. It then addresses problems with pronouns, focusing on pronoun-antecedent agreement (G3-a), clear pronoun references (G3-b), correct use of personal pronoun cases (G3-c), and proper case for who and whom (G3-d).

📝 Lecture Summary

Subject-Verb Agreement

This section presents a comprehensive set of rules to ensure the verb in a sentence agrees in number (singular or plural) with its subject.

G1-a Make the verb agree with its subject not with a word that comes between.

The verb must always agree with its subject, even if a phrase containing a noun of a different number comes between them. The prepositional phrase is not the subject. 🔑 Definition — Subject-Verb Agreement: The grammatical rule that a verb must match its subject in number (singular or plural). 📐 Rule: Verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun in an intervening prepositional phrase. 📌 Example: The tulip in the pot on the balcony needs watering. (The singular subject "tulip" requires the singular verb "needs," not the plural noun "pot.") 📌 Example: High levels of air pollution cause damage to the respiratory tract. (The plural subject "levels" requires the plural verb "cause," not the singular noun "pollution.") 📌 Example: The governor, as well as his press secretary, was shot. (The singular subject "governor" requires the singular verb "was," not the plural noun "secretary.")

G1-b Treat most compound subject connected by and as plural.

When two or more subjects are connected by "and," they form a plural subject and require a plural verb. 📌 Example: Leon and Jan often jog together. (The compound subject "Leon and Jan" is plural, using the plural verb "jog.") 📌 Example: Jill’s natural ability and her desire to help others have led to a career in the ministry. (The compound subject "ability and desire" is plural, using the plural verb "have.")

G1-c With compound subjects connected by or, nor, make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.

When subjects are joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the subject that is closest to it. 📌 Example: A driver’s license or credit card is required. (The verb "is" agrees with the nearest subject, "credit card," which is singular.) 📌 Example: If a relative or neighbour is abusing a child, notify the police. (The verb "is" agrees with the nearest subject, "neighbour," which is singular.) 📌 Example: Neither the real estate agent nor her clients were able to find the house. (The verb "were" agrees with the nearest subject, "clients," which is plural.)

G1-d Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.

Indefinite pronouns like everyone, each, either, neither, and none are typically treated as singular. 🔑 Definition — Indefinite Pronouns: Pronouns that refer to non-specific persons or things (e.g., everyone, each, none). 📌 Example: Everyone on the team supports the coach. (The singular indefinite pronoun "everyone" takes the singular verb "supports.") 📌 Example: Each of the furrows has been seeded. (The singular indefinite pronoun "each" takes the singular verb "has.") 📌 Example: None of these trades requires a college education. (The singular indefinite pronoun "none" takes the singular verb "requires.")

G1-e Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.

Collective nouns (e.g., class, team, family) take a singular verb when the group acts as a single unit. They take a plural verb when the members of the group act as individuals. 🔑 Definition — Collective Nouns: A noun that denotes a group of individuals (e.g., class, team, family). 📌 Example (Singular): The class respects the teacher. (The class acts as a single unit.) 📌 Example (Plural): The class are debating among themselves. (The individual members of the class are debating, so the plural verb "are" is used.) 📌 Example: The scout troop meets in our basement on Tuesdays. (The troop acts as a single unit.) 📌 Example: The young couple were arguing about politics while holding hands. (The focus is on their individualities, so the plural verb "were" is used.) 💡 Why this matters: Choosing between a singular or plural verb for a collective noun can completely change the sentence's meaning.

G1-f Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb.

In sentences with inverted word order (often starting with "There" or "Here"), the verb still agrees with its subject, which comes after the verb. 📌 Example: There are surprisingly few children in our neighbourhood. (The plural subject "children" requires the plural verb "are.") 📌 Example: There were a social worker and a crew of twenty volunteers. (The plural compound subject "a social worker and a crew" requires the plural verb "were.") 📌 Example: At the back of the room are a small aquarium and an enormous terrarium. (The plural compound subject "a small aquarium and an enormous terrarium" requires the plural verb "are.")

G1-g Make the verb agree with its subject not with a subject complement.

A subject complement (a noun or adjective that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject) does not determine the number of the verb. The verb agrees with the subject. 📌 Example: A tent and a sleeping bag is the required equipment. (The singular subject complement "equipment" does not change the fact that the compound subject "a tent and a sleeping bag" is plural, so this is an example of a common error. The correct version would be "A tent and a sleeping bag are the required equipment," but the text states the rule as written.) 📌 Example: A major force in today’s economy is women. (The singular subject "force" requires the singular verb "is," even though the subject complement "women" is plural.)

G1-h Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.

When a relative pronoun (who, which, that) is the subject of a clause, its verb must agree in number with the pronoun's antecedent (the noun the pronoun refers to). 📌 Example: Take a suit that travels well. (The verb "travels" is singular to agree with the antecedent "suit.") 📌 Example: Our ability to use language is one of the things that set us apart from animals. (The verb "set" is plural to agree with the antecedent "things," not the singular "one.") 📌 Example: Dr. Barker knew Frank was the only one of his sons who was responsible enough to handle the estate. (The verb "was" is singular to agree with "one," the antecedent of "who.")

G1-i Words such as athletics, economics, mathematics, physics, statistics, measles, and news are usually singular, despite their plural form.

Many words ending in "-s" are treated as singular because they refer to a single field of study, a disease, or a concept. 📌 Example: Statistics is among the most difficult courses in our program. (Despite the "-s" ending, "statistics" as a field of study is singular and takes the singular verb "is.")

G1-j Titles of works and words mentioned as words are singular.

The title of a single work (book, movie, song) and a word being discussed as a word are always treated as singular. 📌 Example: Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilizations. (The title of a single book is singular.) 📌 Example: "Controlled substance" is a euphemism for illegal drugs. (The term "controlled substance" is being discussed as a word and is therefore singular.)

Problems of Pronouns

This section addresses common challenges in using pronouns correctly, focusing on agreement, clear reference, and case.

G3-a Make pronouns and antecedents agree.

A pronoun must agree in number (and gender) with its antecedent, the noun it refers to. 🔑 Definition — Antecedent: The noun that a pronoun refers to or replaces. 📌 Example (Singular): The doctor finished her rounds. (The singular pronoun "her" agrees with the singular antecedent "doctor.") 📌 Example (Plural): The doctors finished their rounds. (The plural pronoun "their" agrees with the plural antecedent "doctors.")

Generic Nouns: When the antecedent is a generic noun that could be male or female, use "he or she" or "his or her," not the plural "they." 📌 Example: Every runner must train rigorously if he or she wants to excel. 📌 Example: A medical student must study hard if he/she wants to succeed.

Compound antecedents: Treat compound antecedents joined by "and" as plural. Compound antecedents joined by "or" or "nor" follow a proximity rule. 📌 Example: Joanne and John moved to the mountains, where they built a log cabin. (The compound antecedent "Joanne and John" is plural.) 📌 Example: Either Aroma or Viola should receive first prize for his sculpture. (The pronoun "his" agrees with the nearest antecedent, "Viola," which is singular and traditionally masculine. Modern usage might prefer "his or her" or rephrase the sentence.)

G3-b Make pronoun references clear.

A pronoun should always have a clear, unambiguous antecedent. Avoid ambiguous references where a pronoun could refer to two possible nouns. 🔑 Definition — Ambiguous Reference: A grammatical error where a pronoun could logically refer to more than one antecedent in a sentence, making the meaning unclear. 📌 Example: When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass-topped table, it broke. (Ambiguous: "It" could refer to the "pitcher" or the "glass-topped table.") 📌 Example: Tom told James that he had won the lottery. (Ambiguous: "He" could refer to "Tom" or "James.")

G3-c Use personal pronouns in the proper case.

Personal pronouns change form (case) depending on their function in the sentence: subjective case (for subjects), objective case (for objects), and possessive case (to show ownership). 🔑 Definition — Subjective Case: The form of a pronoun used as a subject of a verb (I, we, you, he, she, it, they). 🔑 Definition — Objective Case: The form of a pronoun used as an object of a verb or preposition (me, us, you, him, her, it, them).

📌 Example (Subjective): Sandra confessed that the artist was she. (The pronoun "she" is a subject complement, which requires the subjective case.) 📌 Example (Objective): Bruce found Tony and brought him home. ("Him" is the direct object of the verb "brought.") 📌 Example (Objective): Alice gave me a surprise party. ("Me" is the indirect object of the verb "gave.") 📌 Example: Joel ran away from home because his stepfather and he had quarrelled. ("He" is part of a compound subject of the verb "had quarrelled.") 📌 Example: Geoffrey went with my family and me to King’s Dominion. ("Me" is the object of the preposition "with.")

Appositives: The case of a pronoun used in an appositive is determined by the function of the noun the appositive renames. 📌 Example: At the drama festival, two actors, Christina and I, were selected. (The appositive renames the subject "actors," so "I" is correct.) 📌 Example: The reporter interviewed only two witnesses, the shopkeeper and me. (The appositive renames the direct object "witnesses," so "me" is correct.)

We or us before a noun: Use "we" before a subject noun and "us" before an object noun. 📌 Example: We tenants would rather fight than move. ("Tenants" is the subject, so "we" is correct.)

Comparisons with than or as: When completing a comparison, use the case the pronoun would take if the clause were completed. 📌 Example: My husband is six years older than I (am). ("I" is the subject of the implied verb "am.") 📌 Example: We respected no other candidate as much as her (we respected her). ("Her" is the object of the implied verb "respected.")

Subjects of infinitives: The subject of an infinitive (to + verb) takes the objective case. 📌 Example: We expected Chris and him to win the doubles championship. ("Him" is the subject of the infinitive "to win.") 💡 Why this matters: Using the wrong case with an infinitive (e.g., "Chris and he to win") is a common and noticeable error.

Possessive case to modify a gerund: Use a possessive pronoun (e.g., my, our, your) to modify a gerund (a verb form ending in "-ing" used as a noun). 📌 Example: My father and mother always tolerated our talking after the lights were out. ("Our" modifies the gerund "talking.")

G3-d Use who and whom in the proper case.

Use who (subjective) for subjects of clauses and sentences. Use whom (objective) for objects. 📌 Example (In a clause): He tells that story to whoever will listen. ("Whoever" is the subject of the verb "will listen," regardless of being part of a prepositional phrase.) 📌 Example (In a clause): You will work with our senior engineers, whom you will meet later. ("Whom" is the object of the verb "will meet.") 📌 Example (In a question): Who is responsible for this dastardly deed? ("Who" is the subject of the verb "is.") 📌 Example (In a question): Whom did the committee select? ("Whom" is the object of the verb "did select.") 💡 Why this matters: Choosing between "who" and "whom" is a key marker of formal, grammatically precise writing.

⭐ Key Takeaways

For clear journalistic writing, the verb must always agree with its true subject, ignoring any intervening phrases or subject complements. When using compound subjects, "and" is generally plural, while "or/nor" requires the verb to agree with the nearest part. Pronouns must have a clear and unambiguous antecedent and must agree with it in number. The correct case for a personal or relative pronoun is dictated by its grammatical function within its own clause, whether as a subject (who/I), an object (whom/me), or as a possessive modifying a gerund. Mastering these rules is crucial for professional and credible writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. Which sentence is correct, and why? "The box of chocolates is/are on the table."
2. Should you use "is" or "are" in this sentence? "Neither the teacher nor the students is/are ready for the exam."
3. In the sentence "Everyone on the team has/have submitted their report," which verb is correct?
4. Identify the ambiguous pronoun reference: "The supervisor told the intern that she had made a mistake." Who is "she"?
5. Complete the sentence with the correct case: "My brother is a better musician than (I/me)."

📘 Lecture 16 — ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on the correct grammatical usage of adjectives and adverbs, including their placement as subject complements and the proper formation of comparatives and superlatives. It also addresses common sentence errors like double negatives, sentence fragments, comma splices, and fused sentences, which are crucial for clear and professional journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by distinguishing between adverbs and adjectives as subject complements, then covers the careful use of comparatives and superlatives, including their forms and the avoidance of double comparatives and absolute concept errors. The second half addresses sentence fragments (subordinate clauses, phrases, and other word groups) and explains how to correct comma splices and fused sentences using coordinating conjunctions, semicolons, separate sentences, or restructuring.

📝 Lecture Summary

G4-a Use adverbs not adjectives as subject complements

An adverb is used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. When an adverb serves as a subject complement, it describes the action of the verb, not the subject itself. This is used with verbs of action.

🔑 Definition — Adverb as Subject Complement: An adverb that follows a linking verb to describe the manner or action of the verb, rather than the state of the subject. 📌 Example: "The arrangement worked out perfectly for everyone." (The adverb perfectly describes how the arrangement worked.) 📌 Example: "I was surprised to hear that Louise had done so well on the exam." (The adverb well describes how she did.)

G4-b Use adjectives not adverbs as subject complements

An adjective is used to describe the subject. When it follows a linking verb (such as be, seem, appear, become, smell, look, feel), it modifies the subject, not the verb.

🔑 Definition — Adjective as Subject Complement: An adjective that follows a linking verb to describe the state or quality of the subject. 📌 Example: "The lilacs in our backyard smell especially sweet (not sweetly) this year." (The adjective sweet describes the lilacs, not the act of smelling.) 📌 Example: "Sarmad looked good in her new raincoat." (The adjective good describes Sarmad, not the act of looking.)

G4-c Use comparatives and superlatives with care

A comparative form compares two items, while a superlative form compares three or more items. The formation of these degrees must follow specific rules to avoid errors.

🔑 Definition — Comparative: The form of an adjective or adverb used to compare two things. 🔑 Definition — Superlative: The form of an adjective or adverb used to compare three or more things. 📐 Formula: Positive (soft) → Comparative (softer) → Superlative (softest) ; Positive (careful) → Comparative (more careful) → Superlative (most careful). 📌 Example: "Which of these two brands of toothpaste is better?" (Comparing only two items, uses comparative.) 📌 Example: "Hobbs is the most qualified of the three candidates running for mayor." (Comparing three or more items, uses superlative.) 💡 Why this matters: Incorrect use of comparatives and superlatives, such as using double comparatives (most happiest) or applying comparatives/superlatives to absolute concepts (most unique), is a common grammatical error.

Absolute concepts are qualities that cannot be compared because they are already at the extreme. For example, something is either unique or it is not; it cannot be more unique or most unique. 📌 Example: "That is the unique (not most unique) wedding gown I have ever seen." 📌 Example: "The painting would have been priceless (not more priceless) had it been signed."

G4-d Avoid double negatives.

A double negative uses two negative words in the same clause to convey a single negative, which creates a logical contradiction or an ungrammatical statement. The two negatives effectively cancel each other out, implying a positive meaning. To correct this, use only one negative word per clause.

🔑 Definition — Double Negative: The use of two negative words in the same clause to express a single negation, which is considered grammatically incorrect. 📌 Example: "Management is not doing anything (not nothing) to see that the trash is picked up." (Using nothing with not creates a double negative.) 📌 Example: "George will never (not won’t never) forget that day." (Won’t never is a double negative.)

G5-a Attach fragmented subordinate clause or turn them into sentences.

A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. When a subordinate clause is written as a full sentence, it creates a sentence fragment. The fragment must be attached to a main clause or rewritten to stand alone.

🔑 Definition — Fragment (Subordinate Clause): A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., if, because, although, when) and is punctuated as a sentence, though it is not a complete thought. 📌 Example: "Jane promises to address the problem of limited parking. If she is elected to the tenants’ council." → "Jane promises to address the problem of limited parking if she is elected to the tenants’ council." (The subordinate clause is attached to the main sentence.) 📌 Example: "Violence has produced a great deal of apprehension among children and parents. So that self-preservation, in fact, has become their primary aim." → "Violence has produced a great deal of apprehension among children and parents. Self-preservation, in fact, has become their primary aim." (The subordinate clause is rewritten as a separate, complete sentence.)

G5-b Attach fragmented phrases or turn them into sentences.

A phrase is a group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both. When a phrase is written as a full sentence, it is a fragment. It must be attached to an independent clause.

🔑 Definition — Fragment (Phrase): A group of words without a subject-verb unit (e.g., a participial phrase, an appositive phrase) that is incorrectly punctuated as a complete sentence. 📌 Example: "On Sunday James read the newspaper’s employment sections remotest possibility. Scrutinizing every position that held even the remotest possibility." → "On Sunday James read the newspaper’s employment sections remotest possibility**, scrutinizing every position that held even the remotest possibility**." (The participial phrase is attached to the main sentence.) 📌 Example: "Wednesday morning Phil allowed himself half a grapefruit. The only food he had eaten in two days." → "Wednesday morning Phil allowed himself half a grapefruit**, the only food he had eaten in two days**." (The appositive phrase is attached to the main sentence.)

G5-c Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences.

Other word groups, such as lists or examples presented after a colon, can also be fragments if written as complete sentences. These should be attached to the clause that introduces them.

🔑 Definition — Fragment (Other Word Groups): Word groups like lists or appositives that are missing a main clause and are incorrectly written as a sentence. 📌 Example: "The side effects of lithium are many Nausea, stomach cramps, muscle weakness, vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, and tremors." → "The side effects of lithium are many**: nausea, stomach cramps, muscle weakness, vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, and tremors**." (The list is attached to the main clause with a colon.)

G6-a Consider separating the clause with a comma and a coordinating conjunction

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with only a comma. A fused sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined with no punctuation or conjunction. One way to fix these errors is to add a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, yet, for, nor, so) with a comma.

🔑 Definition — Comma Splice: An error that occurs when two independent clauses are joined with just a comma. 🔑 Definition — Fused Sentence: An error that occurs when two independent clauses are joined with no punctuation or conjunction at all. 📌 Example: "Theo and Fanny had hoped to spend their final days on the farm**, but** they had to move to a retirement home." (Comma + but joins the two clauses.) 📌 Example: "Many government officials privately admit that the polygraph is unreliable**, yet** they continue to use it as a security measure." (Comma + yet joins the two clauses.)

G6-b Consider separating the clause with a semicolon.

A semicolon can be used to join two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction. It can also be used with a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, moreover, therefore) to join clauses, followed by a comma.

🔑 Definition — Semicolon: A punctuation mark used to join two closely related independent clauses. 📌 Example: "Nicklaus is like fine wine**;** he gets better with time." (Two clauses joined by a semicolon.) 📌 Example: "The timber wolf looks like a large German shepherd**; however,** the wolf has longer legs, larger feet, and a wider head." (Two clauses joined by a semicolon and the conjunctive adverb however.)

G6-c Consider making the clauses into separate sentences.

A simple way to correct a comma splice or fused sentence is to split the clauses into separate sentences by using a period.

🔑 Definition — Separate Sentences: Correcting a run-on error by placing a period between two independent clauses. 📌 Example: "In one episode viewers saw two people smashed by a boat, one choked, and another shot to death**, what purpose does this violence serve?" (Comma splice) 📌 Revised: "In one episode viewers saw two people smashed by a boat, one choked, and another shot to death.** What purpose does this violence serve?" (Two separate sentences.)

G6-d Consider restructuring the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.

Another correction method is to turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause (a subordinate clause) by adding a subordinating conjunction like when, although, because, who, which.

🔑 Definition — Subordination: The process of making a clause dependent on another clause to fix a comma splice or fused sentence. 📌 Example: "Lindsey is a top competitor who (not she) has been riding since the age of seven." (The second clause is subordinated using who.) 📌 Example: "The new health plan was explained to the employees in my division, everyone agreed to give it a try." (Comma splice) 📌 Revised: "When the new health plan was explained to the employees in my division, everyone agreed to give it a try." (The first clause is subordinated using when.)

⭐ Key Takeaways

For the exam, you must be able to differentiate between using an adjective and an adverb as a subject complement based on the type of verb. Master the comparative and superlative forms of common words and avoid classic errors like double comparatives, using superlatives with absolute concepts, and double negatives. You are also expected to identify and correct all three types of sentence fragments (subordinate clauses, phrases, and other word groups). Finally, you need to know the four strategies to fix comma splices and fused sentences: using a comma plus a coordinating conjunction, using a semicolon, making separate sentences, or restructuring through subordination.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. When should you use an adjective (not an adverb) as a subject complement? Give an example.
2. What is the correct comparative form of the word vile? What error does the phrase "most vilest" represent?
3. Rewrite the following sentence correctly to avoid a double negative: "We won't never go there again."
4. Identify and correct the sentence fragment in the following: "The company faces a crisis. Because of falling sales."
5. Explain two different ways to correct a comma splice (provide an example for each).

📘 Lecture 17 — EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on the six key principles for constructing effective sentences in journalistic writing: unity, coherence, emphasis, parallelism, needed words, and avoiding shifts. Mastering these principles is crucial for clear, professional, and unambiguous communication, particularly in news writing where precision and impact are paramount.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture is structured around six major issues or rules for effective sentences: Unity (one main thought), Coherence (proper relationship of parts), Emphasis (positioning important information), Parallelism (balancing parallel ideas), Needed Words (completing structures and comparisons), and Shifts (maintaining consistent point of view, tense, mood, and voice). Each section provides definitions, rules, and numerous before-and-after examples to illustrate common errors and their corrections.

📝 Lecture Summary

ISSUE 1: UNITY

Rule: For unity, let your sentence express one main thought with less important thoughts clearly subordinate to the principle idea. This means avoiding the coordination of two unrelated or unequally important ideas within a single sentence. The weaker idea should be made subordinate through the use of phrases and dependent clauses.

Weak: Mr. Norris is a well known economist, and she will speak at the October meeting. Better: Mr. Norris, a well known economist, will speak at the October meeting.

Weak: More people than ever before will be attending this conference and we suggest that you make your reservations now. Better: Since more people than ever before will be attending this conference, we suggest that you make your reservations now.

ISSUE 2: COHERENCE

Rule: When a sentence has coherence, the parts of the sentence fit together in proper relationships so that there can be no misunderstanding about the intended meanings. To achieve coherence, place all modifying adjectives, adverbs, appositives, and prepositional phrases near the words they should modify. Errors that destroy coherence include misplaced modifiers, dangling modifiers, split infinitives, and illogical comparisons.

He showed me several wool turtleneck men’s sweaters. (Men’s wool turtleneck sweaters)

Our team didn’t even score once. (Even once)

The robber was described as a six foot tall man with a mustache weighing 150 pounds. (150 pounds six foot tall man with a mustache.)

When watching a classic film such as Gone with the Wind, commercials are especially irritating. (Dangling modifiers) (I find commercials ...) OR (When I am watching ...)

(When the driver opened) Opening the window to let out a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into an oncoming car. (Dangling modifiers) Better: When the driver opened the window to let out a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into an oncoming car.

Patients should try to if possible avoid going up and down stairs. (Split infinitive)

Football in America is different from the rest of the world. (Illogical comparison) Better: Football in America is different from that of the rest of the world.

Private vehicles provide independent transport, freedom and many jobs and they cause pollution, traffic jams, noise and death. (Illogical connecting) Private vehicles provide independent transport, freedom and many jobs; however, they cause pollution, traffic jams, noise and death. (Illogical connecting)

ISSUE 3: EMPHASIS

Rule: Since the most emphatic positions in a sentence are the beginning and the ending, the less important information obviously should be positioned in the middle. Starting with words like 'there', 'here', and 'it' weakens the sentence by delaying the naming of the subject. Passive voice also weakens the sentence by shifting the focus onto the action and not on the actor.

Before: The airplane reached the speed of sound and it was difficult to control it. After: As it reached the speed of sound, the airplane was difficult to control. After: The airplane, when reached the speed of sound, was difficult to control it.

There are several projects that we must finish within this week. After: Several projects ...

The editor was sent the copy of the letter by the chief editor. (Passive) After: The chief editor sent the copy of the letter to the editor.

ISSUE 4: PARALLELISM

Rule: Balance parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions such as "and," "but," and "or." Also, balance parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions such as "either...or" and "not only...but also." Furthermore, balance comparisons linked with "than" or "as."

Theft vandalism and cheating can result in suspension or even being expelled (expulsion) from school. David is responsible for stocking merchandise, all in store repairs, writing orders for delivery, and sales (selling) of computers.

The shutters were not only too long also (but also) were too wide. I was advised either to change my flight or take (to take) the train.

It is easier to speak in abstractions than grounding (to ground) one’s thoughts in reality. Mother could not persuade me that giving is as much a joy as to receive. (receiving)

ISSUE 5 NEEDED WORDS

Rule: This section addresses three specific needs: (1) Add words needed to complete compound structures, (2) Add the word "that" if there is any danger of misreading without it, and (3) Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.

Some of the regulars are acquaintances whom we see at work or (who) live in our community. I never have (accepted) and never will accept at bribe.

As Joe began to prepare dinner, he discovered (that) the oven wasn’t working properly.

Agnes had an attention span longer than her (that of her) sisters. Henry preferred the restaurants in Pittsburg to Philadelphia. Chicago is larger than any (other) city in Illinois.

ISSUE 6: SHIFTS

Rule: The point of view of a piece of writing is the perspective from which it is written: 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person. Writers must avoid needless shifts in point of view (person), verb tense, mood and voice, and from indirect to direct questions or quotations.

One week our class met in a junkyard to practice rescuing a victim trapped in a wrecked car. We learned to dismantle the car with the essential tools. You were graded on your speed and your skill in extricating the victim. Everyone should purchase a lift ticket unless you plan to spend most of your time walking crawling up a steep hill. (Correct: You should purchase ...) A police officer is often criticized for always being there when they aren’t needed and never being there are. (Correct: Police officers are ...)

My hopes rise and fall as Joseph’s heart started and stopped. The doctors insert a large tube into his chest, and blood flows from the incision onto the floor. The tube drained some blood from his lung, but it was all in vain.

E4-b Maintain consistent verb tenses. My hopes rise (rose) and fall (fell) as Joseph’s heart started and stopped. The doctors insert (-ed) a large tube into his chest, and blood flows (-ed) from the incision onto the floor. The tube drained some blood from his lung, but it was all in vain. (Tense Shift)

E4-c Make verbs consistent in mood and voice. The officers advised against allowing access to our homes without proper identification. Also, (They also suggested that we) alert neighbors to vacation schedules.

E4-d Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations. I wonder whether the sister knew of the murder, and if so did (whether she reported) she reports it to the police. Mother said that she would be late for dinner and (asked me not to) please do not leave for choir practice until Dad comes home.

🔑 Definition — Unity: A principle of sentence construction where a sentence expresses one main thought with less important ideas clearly subordinate. 🔑 Definition — Coherence: A quality of a sentence where its parts fit together in proper relationships to avoid misunderstanding. 🔑 Definition — Parallelism: The principle of balancing grammatically equal elements when they are linked by coordinating or correlative conjunctions, or in comparisons. 📌 Example: Being expelled (expulsion) from school. The original had a non-parallel structure ("suspension" is a noun, "being expelled" is a gerund phrase). The correction uses the noun "expulsion" to match the noun "suspension".

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical elements for constructing effective sentences are ensuring unity, coherence, emphasis, parallelism, completeness, and consistency. Unity requires subordinating weaker ideas to a single main thought. Coherence is achieved by placing modifiers near their targets, avoiding dangling modifiers and illogical comparisons. Emphasis is maximized by placing key information at the beginning or end of a sentence and by using active voice. Parallelism demands that items in a series, paired with conjunctions, or used in comparisons have the same grammatical form. Finally, writers must avoid confusing shifts in point of view (person), verb tense, mood, and voice, and must complete all compound structures and comparisons for logical clarity.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the key rule for achieving "unity" in a sentence?
2. Why does the sentence "The robber was described as a six foot tall man with a mustache weighing 150 pounds" lack coherence?
3. According to the lecture, which two positions in a sentence are the most emphatic?
4. How would you correct the parallelism error in the sentence: "Theft and cheating can result in suspension or even being expelled from school"?
5. What is wrong with the following sentence, and how would you fix it according to the "Shifts" section? "My hopes rise as Joseph’s heart started to beat."

📘 Lecture 18 — Style: Guideline and Pitfalls I

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on the foundational principles of journalistic writing style, emphasizing both the "do's" (guidelines for conveying a good message) and the "don'ts" (common style pitfalls). Understanding these concepts is essential for producing clear, concise, and professional journalistic work.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture introduces five key "do's" of style: omitting needless words, being sparing with adjectives but lavish with verbs, beingware of special words, not overstating, and remembering signposts. It then delves into two major "don'ts" of style: colloquialism (including filler words, contractions, subjective pronouns, split infinitives, ending sentences with prepositions, stage directions, and vague words) and circumlocution (using many words where few would do). The lecture concludes with a comparison table of colloquial vs. formal language.

📝 Lecture Summary

How to Convey a Good Message (Do’s of style)

The lecture begins by presenting five key guidelines for effective journalistic writing. First, omit needless words—eliminate any words that do not add meaning. Second, be sparing with adjectives, but lavish with verbs—strong verbs carry more weight than descriptive adjectives. Third, beware of your special words—avoid jargon or insider terms that might confuse readers. Fourth, do not overstate—exaggeration undermines credibility. Fifth, remember your signposts—use clear transitions to guide the reader through your text.

STYLE PITFALLS (DON’TS OF STYLE)

COLLOQUIALISM

Colloquialism is defined as "writing in the way that one would speak." This is a major pitfall in journalistic writing because it undermines professionalism and clarity. The lecture outlines seven specific rules to avoid colloquialism:

1. Avoid using "filler" words. The following are overused fillers:

   • Basically – At best, it can be used to begin a sentence, but there are better choices available to replace the word, if it is not omitted entirely. E.g. "A microphone is basically a device that is used to record sound."
   • Even – Often, this word is found as an "additive" to a series, as in the following example, but is generally not needed. E.g. "The basket contained eggs, sandwiches, and even utensils."
   • Just – When used in the same context as BASICALLY, this is another overused filler word that one should omit. E.g. “When pouring the solution, just be certain, not to, spill its contents.”
   • Well – Generally used to begin a sentence following a question. E.g. "Why is this problem? Well, one major issue is the..."

2. Avoid contractions. Replace can't with cannot, doesn't with does not, and so on. For example, instead of writing "Therefore, this can't be used as evidence in the case", write "Therefore, this cannot be used as evidence in the case."

3. Limit your use of subjective pronouns. Use 3rd person perspective. Don’t use 1st or 2nd person pronouns like “I”, “Me”, “You” and “We”.

4. Avoid splitting infinitives. For example: He tried to not sneeze (not to sneeze) in the library.

5. Avoid ending your sentences with a preposition. Before: “What is the bag filled with?" After: "What is inside the bag?"

6. Avoid stage directions. Do not commence by telling the reader what you are doing, or begin an essay by telling the reader what the paper will discuss. Examples to avoid: "I am writing to you to ask you to..." and "This paper is going to talk about how..."

7. Avoid vague words. Vague words can be described as words that are open to interpretation or that don't express your ideas as well as more precise words would. Examples include: "There are a few ways to solve the equation" and "She made enough food."

🔑 Definition — Colloquialism: writing in the way that one would speak.

COLLOQUIAL VS FORMAL

The lecture provides a comparison table of colloquial versus formal language:

CIRCUMLOCUTION

Circumlocution is the use of many words where few would do. It is a figure of speech where the meaning of a word or phrase is indirectly expressed through several or many words. Its antonym is brevity and conciseness. Usually everywhere politicians and government officials adopt this circumlocution, e.g. the traditional red tape.

The lecture provides three examples of circumlocution and their improved, concise versions:

Example 1: Before: The minister will cause inquires to be instituted with a view to ascertaining the views of the general public upon the subject of national dietary standards. After: The Minister will find out what people think about the national diet.

Example 2: Before: All things considered, it seems like the new tax cut imposed by the administration will without a doubt make the wealthy wealthier and the poor poorer. When the administration’s new tax cut is passed, the children living in poverty will be affected the worst. After: The new tax cut imposed by the administration will undoubtedly make the wealthy wealthier and the poor poorer. Consequently, children living in poverty will be severely affected.

Example 3: Before: High-quality learning environments are a necessary precondition for facilitation and enhancement of the ongoing learning process. After: Children need good schools if they are to learn properly.

🔑 Definition — Circumlocution: the use of many words where few would do; a figure of speech where meaning is indirectly expressed through several or many words.

💡 Why this matters: Avoiding circumlocution ensures clarity and conciseness, which are critical for journalistic writing where space is limited and readers need quick access to information.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical lessons from this lecture are that effective journalistic style requires both positive guidelines (omitting needless words, using strong verbs, avoiding jargon and overstatement, and using clear signposts) and strict avoidance of common pitfalls. The two major pitfalls are colloquialism (writing as one speaks, which includes filler words, contractions, subjective pronouns, split infinitives, prepositions at sentence ends, stage directions, and vague words) and circumlocution (using many words where few would do). Students must master the colloquial vs. formal equivalents table and practice transforming wordy, indirect expressions into concise, direct statements. The guiding principle from the lecture's opening quotes is to use "proper words in proper places"—thinking clearly into language and saying something as clearly as possible.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the five "do's" of style for conveying a good message in journalistic writing?
2. Define colloquialism and list four specific types of words or constructions to avoid when writing formally.
3. What is circumlocution, and why is it considered a style pitfall? Provide one example of circumlocution and its concise revision.
4. Convert the following colloquial sentence into formal writing: "The professor was like, kinda real upset about the project, and he didn't wanna deal with it no more."
5. Why should journalists avoid "stage directions" in their writing, and what alternative approach should they take?

📘 Lecture 19 — STYLE: GUIDELINE AND PITFALLS II

📖 Overview: This lecture explores common style pitfalls in journalistic writing, focusing on ambiguity, redundancy, clichés, and other linguistic errors that undermine clarity. It provides concrete examples and revisions to help writers produce cleaner, more precise, and more readable prose.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers Ambiguity (syntactical and semantic), Redundancy (unnecessary repetition), Cliché (overused phrases), Euphemism (substituting harsh terms with milder ones), Grandiloquence (pompous language), Excrescence (awkward wordiness), Inseparables (redundant paired phrases), Slang (informal language), Verbiage (excessive wordiness), and the suffix -wise (overused construction).

📝 Lecture Summary

AMBIGUITY:

Ambiguity (ambiguity can be syntactical or semantic) makes writing harder to understand, causing hesitation, doubt, and frustration. It slows down reading. Ambiguity can be intentional or unintentional; intentional ambiguity may mislead or be necessary for context, but unintentional ambiguity must always be avoided. Three types of ambiguity exist, and understanding them helps identify and eliminate ambiguity.

🔑 Definition — Ambiguity: Language that is unclear, having more than one possible meaning, either syntactically or semantically.

📌 Example 1: "Marry said to her sister that the fault was hers." — Not clear whose fault it is (sister's or Marry's). 📌 Example 2: "When she put the pitcher on the glass-topped table it broke." — Not clear what broke (pitcher or table). 📌 Example 3 (Before): "The Minister of Agriculture requires eggs to be stamped with the date when they are laid by the farmer." (After): "The Minister of Agriculture requires eggs to be stamped by the farmers with the date when they are laid." — Correctly places "by the farmer" to avoid implying the farmer laid eggs. 📌 Example 4 (Before): "This morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas." (After): "This morning, in my pajamas, I shot an elephant." — Moves prepositional phrase to clarify who wore pajamas. 📌 Example 5 (Before): "Our mothers bore us." (After): "Our mothers gave birth to us." — Replaces the ambiguous verb "bore." 📌 Example 6 (Before): "Americans are willing to drop nuclear weapons." (After): "The American people are willing to utilize nuclear weapons." — Clarifies subject and verb.

💡 Why this matters: Ambiguity, whether from dangling modifiers or unclear pronouns, forces readers to slow down and guess meaning, directly violating journalism's goal of fast, clear communication.

REDUNDANCY

Redundancy involves unnecessary repetition of words or ideas, creating wordiness and weakening the sentence.

📌 Example 1: "The shop assistant restored the umbrella back to its owner." — "Restored" already implies "back." 📌 Example 2: "She was often in the habit of going to the cinema." — "Often" and "in the habit" are redundant. 📌 Example 3 (Before): "John has been quite ill for a really long time." (After): "John has been ill for a long time." — Removes weak intensifiers "quite" and "really." 📌 Example 4 (Before): "Suzy is a good teacher who makes a significant impact on her students and faculty." (After): "Suzy is a talented teacher who makes an impact on her students and faculty." — Removes "significant" and uses stronger word "talented." 📌 Example 5 (Before): "Michael Jordan was the best basketball player ever. Jordan was slam dunk master." (After): "Basketball star Michael Jordan was the best basketball player ever and slam dunk master." — Combines two sentences. 📌 Example 6 (Before): "John found the job to be easy, and Jen also thought it was simple. Mike completed the job without difficulty too." (After): "John, Jen, and Mike found the job to be easy." — Combines three sentences with similar meaning.

CLICHÉ:

Clichés are phrases that have been exhausted to the point where they have completely lost originality. They weaken writing by substituting tired formulas for fresh expression.

🔑 Definition — Cliché: An overused phrase that has lost its original impact and originality due to excessive use.

📌 Examples of clichés: "No shadow of doubt," "Strange as it may seem," "Last but not least," "Leave no stone unturned," "Needless to say," "stands to reason," "In any shape or form." 📌 Example: "Hercules was as strong as an ox." — Overused simile. 📌 Example: "I have to give an arm and a leg to find a parking spot during the holiday season." — Overused hyperbole. 📌 Example: "There are loads of websites on the Internet." — Vague and clichéd.

EUPHEMISM:

Euphemism substitutes a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered too harsh, blunt, or offensive. While sometimes necessary, overuse can obscure meaning.

GRANDILOQUENCE:

Grandiloquence is pompous, colorful, or ostentatious language that obscures meaning and distracts from content. Good journalistic writing replaces grandiloquence with clear, direct prose.

📌 Before (grandiloquent): "The luxurious ambiance of this exotic setting, which we chanced upon during our desultory peregrination south along the Amalfi Coast, is found in the guests seemed to be on a nuptial holiday, whether the first or the 25th. The place had a number of luminaries who were not at all condescending. Among the distinguished guests was a producer with his entourage, who came in from their palatial yacht and dined at the hotel..." 📌 After (direct): "All the guests at San Pietro seemed to be on honeymoons, whether first, second, or 25th. The crowd – primarily Italian, British, German, and American – was sophisticated and decidedly un-snobbish. There were even a few celebrities on view. A famous producer, his wife and friends stopped by for dinner while their chartered yacht lay anchored in the harbor. Two well-know actors arrived the day we left. Another star was there but, for some reasons, stayed in her room most of the time. Nobody asked for autographs-probably too busy having their own good time." (Pamela Fiori / Travel and Leisure.)

💡 Why this matters: Grandiloquence often hides weak content behind fancy words; stripping it away reveals whether the writing actually has substance and makes it accessible to a wider audience.

EXCRESCENCE:

Excrescence refers to bankrupt and awkward words or phrasing that add unnecessary bulk without adding meaning.

📌 Before: "We have received your order for two lawnmowers, and will send same by rail." — Uses "same" instead of "them." 📌 After: "We have received your order for two lawnmowers and will send them by rail tomorrow." — Uses natural pronoun "them" and adds "tomorrow" for specificity. 📌 Before: "We are instituting many meaningful changes in the curriculum." — Vague "meaningful changes." 📌 After: "We are changing the curriculum in many significant ways." — More active and specific.

INSEPARABLES:

Inseparables are paired words that are often used together redundantly, creating unnecessary repetition. Examples include "chop and change," "hook and crook," "betwixt and tween," "shape or form," and "yes and means," "each and every."

SLANG:

Slang is informal, non-standard language that is inappropriate for most journalistic writing. It can confuse readers and undermine credibility.

📌 Example: "Saw a pretty corny movie last night. Mary major had a part in it. A tear jerker though." 📌 Example: "Somebody pinched my brolly when it was falling in bucket." — Uses slang ("pinched" for stole, "brolly" for umbrella).

VERBIAGE:

Verbiage is excessive wordiness that obscures meaning. Good writing is concise.

📌 Example phrase using verbiage: "Give us a fiver. Here you are. Smashing. Ta." — Informal and wordy. 📌 Before (verbiage): "Should the supply of stickers not be sufficient to meet section requirements, application should be made to this office for a supply of additional copies." 📌 After (concise): "If you need more stickers, ask for them."

THE SUFFIX-WISE:

The suffix -wise is often overused in journalistic writing to create informal, awkward adverbs. Examples include "Taxwise," "Businesswise," "Weatherwise," "Moneywise," "Newswise," "Salarywise," "Pricwise," "Roadwise," "Disciplinewise," "Careerwise." This construction should be avoided in favor of clearer phrasing (e.g., "regarding taxes" instead of "taxwise").

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical lesson from this lecture is that clear, direct, and precise language is the foundation of good journalistic writing. Writers must systematically eliminate ambiguity by ensuring every pronoun has a clear antecedent and every modifier is properly placed. Redundancy, clichés, and verbiage weaken prose and waste readers' time; every word should earn its place. Grandiloquence and euphemisms may sound impressive but ultimately obscure meaning, while slang and the overuse of "-wise" undermine professionalism. The consistent application of "Before/After" examples demonstrates that the best revision is often the simplest one that preserves meaning while maximizing clarity and brevity.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two main types of ambiguity, and why is each problematic in journalistic writing?
2. In the example "When she put the pitcher on the glass-topped table it broke," what is the ambiguity, and how would you rewrite the sentence to clarify it?
3. What is a cliché, and why should journalists avoid using phrases like "last but not least" or "leave no stone unturned"?
4. Compare the "Before" and "After" versions of the grandiloquence example from Travel and Leisure. What specific changes made the "After" version more journalistically sound?
5. Give an original example of redundancy (unnecessary repetition) and then revise it to eliminate the redundancy.

📘 Lecture 20 — Paragraph Writing: Types and Techniques

📖 Overview: This lecture defines a paragraph and its essential traits—unity, coherence, a topic sentence, and adequate development. It then introduces two specific types of paragraphs: the Simple Listing Paragraph and the Order of Importance Paragraph, explaining their structures and providing examples and practice topics for each. This matters because mastering different paragraph types is fundamental to clear and effective journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture covers the definition of a paragraph and its four key traits: unity, coherence, topic sentence, and adequate development. It then details the specific structure and characteristics of two paragraph types: the Simple Listing Paragraph and the Order of Importance Paragraph, including their differences and examples.

📝 Lecture Summary

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, a Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development.

1. Unity: The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

2. Coherence: Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

• Logical bridges:
  • The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence.
  • Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form.
• Verbal bridges:
  • Key words can be repeated in several sentences.
  • Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences.
  • Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences.
  • Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences.

3. A topic sentence: A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph.

4. Adequate development The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS:

This section introduces two specific structures for paragraphs.

SIMPLE LISTING PARAGRAPHS:

Structure:

1. Topic Sentence (central idea or focus)
2. Body
3. Conclusion

Example 1: I need a water bottle for the hike in case I get thirsty. A sweater is useful if it gets cold. A compass will help me go in the right direction. Sandwiches will be an easy to carry snack. I can use a camera to take picture of usual or attractive places.

Example 2: City has many interesting areas. Chinatown is a neighborhood where you can eat good Chinese food. On Fifth Avenue, you can see many beautiful stores. Greenwich Village has interesting clubs and restaurants. Broadway is the center of American theater. Truly, New York has something for everyone.

ORDER OF IMPORTANCE PARAGRAPH

Difference between listing and order of importance paragraphs: In the body, an Order of Importance paragraph ranks the listed items.

Compare the following paragraphs. Of course the second one is Order of Importance Paragraph.

When we choose a car, we must think about many things. It must be big enough for the number of people we want to carry. It must not cost more than we want to spend. It should be fuel efficient. We want a car that looks good. It can be difficult to find the right car.

When we choose a car, we must think about many things. The most important is that it must be big enough for the number of people we want to carry. The second most important thing is that it must not cost more than we want to spend. Third, it should be fuel efficient. Last, we want a car that looks good. It can be difficult to find the right car.

STRUCTURE: Topic sentence 1st importance + 2nd importance + 3rd importance Conclusion

Example: “What Makes a Good Boss?” There are three important qualities necessary in a good boss. The most important is fairness. If the boss is fair, workers can feel that if they do a good job, their work will be appreciated, and their efforts will be rewarded. The second most important quality is leadership. The boss should be an example and a teacher. This allows workers to learn from a boss so that they can increase their job skills and get promoted. The third most important factor is that the boss acts with consistency. That way the workers know what to expect each day. They know how they’ll be treated and what their share of the workload will be. I would hire a boss with these qualities for myself.

💡 Why this matters: This section directly contrasts a simple list with a ranked list. The key difference is the use of transition phrases like "the most important," "second most important," and "third most important" to show the relative significance of each point.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A paragraph must have unity, coherence, a topic sentence, and adequate development to be effective. Coherence can be achieved through logical and verbal bridges, with verbal bridges using repetition of key/synonymous words, pronouns, and transitions. The Simple Listing Paragraph presents items without prioritizing them, while the Order of Importance Paragraph uses specific transition words to rank points from most to least important (or vice versa). The structure for both types includes a topic sentence, body, and conclusion, but the Order of Importance body is defined by its ranking system. A well-developed paragraph should use multiple methods like examples, data, anecdotes, or analysis to fully explore its topic.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the four essential traits of an effective paragraph as defined in this lecture?
2. Name two methods for creating verbal bridges to improve coherence in a paragraph.
3. What is the primary structural difference between a Simple Listing Paragraph and an Order of Importance Paragraph?
4. List at least four different methods a writer can use to ensure a paragraph has adequate development.
5. According to the lecture, where is the most effective place to put a topic sentence, especially for a less experienced writer?

📘 Lecture 21 — Paragraph Writing: Types and Techniques

📖 Overview: This lecture explores different types of paragraph organization, including time order, spatial order, and multi-paragraph compositions. It explains how to structure paragraphs by chronology, physical location, comparison and contrast, and cause and effect, providing students with essential tools for clear and effective journalistic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture begins with time order paragraphs, providing examples and structural analysis of paragraphs arranged by sequence of events. It then covers spatial order paragraphs used for describing physical spaces. The lecture progresses to multi-paragraph compositions, including contrastive compositions that compare two subjects, and finally cause and effect compositions that explain reasons and outcomes.

📝 Lecture Summary

Time Order Paragraphs

Time order paragraphs present events in the sequence they occur, using time words such as "first," "next," "after that," "then," and "finally" to guide the reader through a chronological narrative. The structure includes a topic sentence that states the main idea, a body that details events in order, and a conclusion that wraps up the experience.

🔑 Definition — Time Order Paragraph: A paragraph that organizes information by presenting events in the chronological order in which they happened. 📌 Example 1 — My European Holiday: Last year I took a month-long trip to Europe. First, I went to London. I stayed there for two weeks... After London, I flew to Paris... Then I went to Rome by train... After a week in Rome, I flew home. 📌 Example 2 — Putting on Our Play: Last weekend we put on our annual drama club play... We began planning two months ago. First, we selected the play. Next, a director was chosen. After that, we began casting the play... Finally, two weeks ago, we held a dress rehearsal... the play was a big hit.

Spatial Order Paragraphs

Spatial order paragraphs are used to describe physical spaces and locations. They organize information based on where objects are positioned in relation to one another using location words such as left, right, front, back, above, below, next to, and directions like north, south, east, and west.

🔑 Definition — Spatial Order Paragraph: A paragraph that organizes details according to the physical arrangement or location of objects in a space. 📌 Example — A Comfortable Place: My favorite room is my living room. It’s rectangular with the door on the left side of the south wall. In the wall opposite the door is a picture window. Below the window is a sofa. A rectangular coffee table is in front of the sofa. Facing the sofa are two armchairs. An abstract painting is on the west wall. Along the east wall you will see a long cabinet with a vase of flowers on it. 💡 Why this matters: Spatial order creates a clear mental picture for the reader by guiding them through a space systematically.

Multi-Paragraph Composition

A multi-paragraph composition is a piece of writing composed of more than one paragraph, where each paragraph has its own structure of topic sentence, body, and conclusion, all working together to support a central idea presented in an introduction and concluded in a final paragraph.

📌 Example — My Three Closest Friends: This composition begins with an introduction stating the writer has several close friends. The body contains three paragraphs, each dedicated to one friend (William, Janet, and Tom), with each paragraph having its own central idea, body, and conclusion. The final conclusion paragraph ties all three friends together.

Contrastive Compositions

Contrastive compositions are used to compare and contrast two subjects, showing their similarities and differences. The structure typically includes a first paragraph with a topic sentence introducing both subjects, followed by paragraphs comparing specific aspects of each, and a concluding paragraph that summarizes the overall comparison.

📌 Example — Two Cities: The composition compares Boston and San Francisco. Paragraph 1 introduces both cities. Paragraph 2 describes Boston's ethnic flavor, universities, and high-tech industry. Paragraph 3 describes San Francisco's gold rush history, physical geography, and cultural movements. Paragraph 4 concludes that these cities show the diversity of American urban areas.

Cause & Effect Compositions

Cause & effect compositions explain the reasons (causes) for a decision or event and the results (effects) that follow. The structure includes an introduction stating the decision and reasons, a body explaining the causes (including discussions with others and narrowing down choices), and a conclusion reflecting on the outcome.

📌 Example — Choosing My Career: The writer explains the decision to become a nurse. Introduction states the decision was based on personal goals and views of society. Body paragraph 1 discusses conversations with parents and career goals (good pay, status, helping people). Body paragraph 2 explains narrowing choices to teaching and nursing before deciding on nursing for its flexibility. Conclusion states the writer is in nursing school and made the right choice.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must understand that time order paragraphs use sequential time words to organize events chronologically, while spatial order paragraphs use location words to describe physical spaces. Multi-paragraph compositions require each paragraph to have its own internal structure while supporting a central theme. Contrastive compositions systematically compare two subjects point by point, and cause and effect compositions clearly present reasons and their resulting outcomes, with each type serving a distinct purpose in journalistic writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three structural components of every well-written paragraph?
2. List five time words commonly used to signal chronological order in time order paragraphs.
3. Name at least four location words used in spatial order paragraphs.
4. What is the key structural difference between a single time order paragraph and a multi-paragraph composition?
5. Identify the four sections required in the structure of a contrastive composition.

📘 Lecture 22 — Essay Writing

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on the essential strategies for writing effective essays, particularly in response to exam questions. It covers how to analyze essay prompts, understand various essay strategies (like analyze, compare, describe), and employ high-impact language to improve clarity, structure, and appearance. This lecture is crucial for students to move from average to exceptional essay writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture begins by demonstrating how to deconstruct an essay topic into its strategy, content, and prompts. It then defines the four key characteristics of a well-written answer: focused, organized, supported, and packaged. A comprehensive list of various essay strategies (such as analyze, compare, define, evaluate) and their definitions is provided. The lecture concludes with an extensive guide on using high-impact language, covering word choice (using Anglo-Saxon words, avoiding wordiness), sentence structure (active voice, subject placement), and visual appearance (paragraph size, white space, headings), illustrated with a step-by-step example.

📝 Lecture Summary

Anglicizing essay topic

An essay question can be broken down into three components for better understanding. The strategy is the action word (e.g., Analyze, Describe, Compare). The content is the subject matter to be discussed. The prompts are the key terms within the content that the essay must cover. For example, for the topic "Analyze Jesus‘Sermon on the Mount’," "Analyze" is the strategy, "Jesus‘Sermon on the Mount’" is the content, and "Jesus‘ Sermon; on the Mount" are the prompts. Failing to address all prompts will render the essay incomplete.

What is a well written answer to an essay question?

A well-written answer must be Well Focused, meaning it answers all parts of the question completely without "padding" or rambling. It must be Well Organized, with a clear introduction stating the point(s) and a clear conclusion summarizing the material and emphasizing the thesis. It must be Well Supported, proving assertions with facts, figures, examples, and tests. Finally, it must be Well Packaged, adhering to the conventions of language to appear competent and educated.

VARIOUS STRATEGIES FOR ESSAYS

This section provides definitions for various essay strategies, which are the action verbs that guide the essay's approach.

• ANALYZE: Break the subject down into parts and explain the various parts.
• COMPARE: Show how two things are similar as well as different; include details or examples.
• CONTRAST: Show how two things are different; include details or examples.
• CRITIQUE: Point out both the good and bad points of something.
• DEFINE: Give an accurate meaning of a term with enough detail to show you understand it.
• DESCRIBE: Write about the subject so the reader can visualize it; tell how it looks or happened, including how, who, where, why.
• DIAGRAM: Make a drawing of something and label its parts.
• DISCUSS: Give a complete and detailed answer, including important characteristics and main points.
• ENUMERATE: Write in list or outline form, giving points one by one.
• EVALUATE: Give your opinion of the value of the subject; discuss its good and bad points, strengths and weaknesses.
• EXPLAIN: Give the meaning of something; give facts and details that make the idea easy to understand.
• ILLUSTRATE: Make the point or idea clear by giving examples.
• INTERPRET: Tell about the importance of the subject; explain the results or effects of something.
• JUSTIFY: Give good reasons that support a decision, action, or event.
• OUTLINE: Make an organized listing of the important points of a subject.
• PRETEND: Make believe/Imagine you are in a particular situation or a particular person and describe what this is like.
• PROVE: Show that something is true by giving facts or logical reasons.
• RELATE: Show how things are alike or connected.
• STATE: Give the main points in brief, clear form.
• SUMMARIZE: Briefly cover the main points; use paragraph form.
• TRACE: Tell about an event or process in chronological order.

PROMPTS

Prompts are the key words of an essay statement or the terms of a question. The body of the whole essay revolves around these terms, which are the points you must cover. An essay that misses any prompts is considered incomplete, so it is critical to analyze the topic statement before writing.

HIGH IMPACT LANGUAGE

High Impact Language consists of three components: High Impact Words, High Impact Sentence (Structure), and High Impact Appearance.

HIGH IMPACT LANGUAGE: WORDS

This section provides several rules for improving word choice.

• Use Anglo-Saxon: Prefer short, direct words (Anglo-Saxon) over longer, more formal words (Latinate). 🔑 Definition — Anglo-Saxon words: Short, direct words like "after," "find out," "know," "goal," and "tell". 📐 Rule: Latinate → Anglo-Saxon: "pursuant" → "after"; "ascertain" → "find out"; "cognizant" → "know".
• Seven Ways of Avoiding Wordiness:
  • Rule 1: Avoid ready-made phrases.
  • Rule 2: Avoid repetition (e.g., redundant verb-preposition combinations).
  • Rule 3: Avoid passive and expletive structures as they soften action and add bulk.
  • Rule 4: Avoid circumlocution and pomposity (long-winded, fancy language).
  • Rule 5: Avoid euphemisms that hide unpleasant realities.
  • Rule 6: Use verbs rather than nouns (avoid the "Noun Disease" of turning verbs into nouns).
  • Rule 7: Shorten modifiers by using simple words instead of long relative clauses.

HIGH IMPACT LANGUAGE: STRUCTURE

This section explains how to arrange sentences for maximum impact.

1. Simple, Compound and Complex: Use a simple sentence (e.g., "I ran the meeting.") for maximum impact. Use a compound sentence (e.g., "I ran the meeting, and I wrote the minutes.") to lower a message's impact. Use a combination for variety.
2. Put subject first: Place the subject of the sentence at the beginning to improve clarity and impact. 📌 Example: Low impact: "Assistance in designing a system tailored to a customer’s needs provides..." High impact: "The attached checklist provides assistance in designing a system tailored to a customer’s needs."
3. Use active voice: Use the active voice (e.g., "The secretary will cancel the meeting.") instead of the passive voice (e.g., "The meeting was cancelled by the secretary."). Passives can hide the true subject.

HIGH IMPACT LANGUAGE: APPEARANCE

The visual layout of the essay is important for making a good impression.

1. PARAGRAPH SIZE: Keep paragraphs to 3 to 4 sentences.
2. MULTIPLE IDEAS: When listing multiple ideas, indent and itemize them (like a bulleted or numbered list).
3. WHITE SPACES: A paper with white spaces (avoiding dense text blocks) makes a better impression.
4. HEADINGS: Use headings to create pictures in the reader's mind and break up the text.

EXAMPLE:

The lecture provides a step-by-step example showing how to transform a poorly written, wordy, and unclear paragraph into a high-impact one. The process involves:

1. Adding a topic sentence.
2. Dividing the text into smaller paragraphs.
3. Simplifying word choice (e.g., "extant for approximately half a decade" to "around for about five years").
4. Shortening sentences.
5. Making sentences active (e.g., "I would like to exchange a few thoughts...").
6. Itemizing multiple ideas (e.g., using a numbered list like "1. We still have not developed...", "2. Those people who...", "3. The Keys to...").

⭐ Key Takeaways

When writing an essay, you must first deconstruct the question into its strategy, content, and prompts to ensure you answer it completely and correctly. Then, your answer must be focused, organized, supported, and well-packaged. Using high-impact language is critical; this means using simple Anglo-Saxon words, avoiding wordiness, placing the subject first in sentences, and using active voice for clarity and force. Finally, the appearance of your essay matters—use short paragraphs, headings, and white space to make your work easy and pleasant to read.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three components of an essay topic that should be identified before writing?
2. Name the four key characteristics of a well-written answer to an essay question.
3. What is the main difference between the "Compare" and "Contrast" essay strategies?
4. List at least three of the seven rules for avoiding wordiness in high-impact language.
5. Why is it recommended to use "Anglo-Saxon" words instead of "Latinate" words in high-impact writing?