MCM310 — Final Term Summary (Lectures 23–45)

📘 Lecture 23 — Signal Words

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on using signal words (transitions) to improve writing coherence and bridge ideas smoothly. It explains why signal words are essential for clear, professional writing and provides comprehensive lists of signal word categories with examples and practice exercises.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by comparing two paragraphs — one without signal words and one with signal words — to demonstrate their importance. It then defines transitions and their role in creating coherence. The bulk of the lecture provides detailed lists of signal words organized by function: continuation, change-of-direction, sequence, time, illustration, emphasis, cause/condition/result, spatial, comparison-contrast, conclusion, and fuzz signals. It also covers non-word emphasis signals. The lecture concludes with two annotated examples of signal word usage and a practice exercise requiring students to join sentences using specific conjunctions and transitions.

📝 Lecture Summary

Comparing Two Paragraphs for Signal Words

The lecture opens by presenting two versions of the same paragraph titled “Benefits of Private Vehicles.” The first version presents ideas in a flat, disconnected manner: “Private vehicles play a key role in our lives. They provide independent transport, freedom and many jobs. They cause pollution, traffic jams, noise and death.” The second version uses signal words to connect ideas smoothly: “Private vehicles play a key role in our lives, as they provide independent transport, freedom and many jobs; however, they cause pollution, traffic jams, noise and death. Firstly, Private transport, especially the car, gives us freedom to move, so we no longer need to organize our lives around our bus or train timetables. Secondly, many people think that their cars are indispensable machines and they cannot live without them. For example, People who live in rural areas need private vehicles to go to towns for shopping, socializing, taking children to schools, etc. Without a car their lives would be very difficult; as a result, they would be forced to rely on infrequent public transport, if it existed at all. That is why; many families who live in the country have one or more cars. Otherwise, they would be cut off from the rest of the world. From this we see, for many people a car is a necessity.”

💡 Why this matters: This comparison shows that signal words transform choppy, disconnected text into a flowing, logical argument that is easier for readers to follow.

The Need for Coherence and Transitions

To improve writing, ideas in sentences and paragraphs must stick together (have coherence), and the gap between ideas must be bridged smoothly. One way to achieve this is by using transitions — words, phrases, or techniques that help bring two ideas together. Transitional words and phrases represent one way of gaining coherence. Certain words help continue an idea, indicate a shift of thought or contrast, or sum up a conclusion.

🔑 Definition — Coherence: The quality that makes writing stick together logically, so ideas flow smoothly from one to the next.

🔑 Definition — Transitions: Words, phrases, or techniques that bridge ideas together to create coherence in writing.

List of Signal Words – Continuation Signals

Continuation Signals indicate there are more ideas to come. The list includes: first of all, secondly, thirdly, moreover, furthermore, what is more, and, again, likewise, next, with, other, too, another, in addition, one reason, similarly, a final reason, and finally, last of all, also, more.

🔑 Definition — Continuation Signals: Transition words that warn the reader that more ideas on the same topic are coming.

List of Signal Words – Change-of-Direction Signals

Change-of-Direction Signals indicate contrasts or a shift in thought. The list includes: although, but, conversely, despite, however, in spite of, the opposite, rather, while, different from, in contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary, still, though, even though, instead of, otherwise, on the other hand, yet.

🔑 Definition — Change-of-Direction Signals: Transitions that signal a contrast, exception, or shift away from the previous idea.

List of Signal Words – Sequence Signals

Sequence Signals indicate there is an order to the ideas. These include words like: A, B, C, for one thing, next, now, while, until, during, always, on time, earlier, first, second, third, in the first place, then, before, after, into (far into the night), last, since, o’clock, later.

🔑 Definition — Sequence Signals: Transitions that show a chronological or logical order of ideas or events.

List of Signal Words – Time Signals

Time Signals answer the question “When is it happening?” The list includes: when, immediately, now, lately, at the same time, already, final, little by little, after awhile, once, during.

🔑 Definition — Time Signals: Transitions that indicate when an action or idea occurs.

List of Signal Words – Illustration Signals

Illustration Signals show what a principle means in reality. The list includes: for example, specifically, for instance, such as, in the same way as, to illustrate, much like, similar to.

🔑 Definition — Illustration Signals: Transitions that introduce specific examples or concrete evidence to clarify a general point.

List of Signal Words – Emphasis Signals

Emphasis Signals highlight important ideas. The list includes: a major development, it all boils down to, a significant factor, a primary concern, a key feature, a major event, a vital force, a central issue, a distinctive quality, above all, by the way, especially important, especially relevant, especially valuable, important to note, most of all, most noteworthy, more than anything else, of course, pay particular attention to, remember that, should be noted, the most substantial issue, the main value, the basic concept, the crux of the matter, the chief outcome, the principal item.

🔑 Definition — Emphasis Signals: Transitions that draw the reader’s attention to the most critical or noteworthy points.

List of Signal Words – Cause, Condition, or Result Signals

Cause, Condition, or Result Signals indicate that a condition or modification is coming. The list includes: because, if, of, for, while, that, as, so that, yet, resulting from, from, then, until, whether, therefore, thus, consequently, so, but, since, in order that, unless, due to, without.

🔑 Definition — Cause, Condition, or Result Signals: Transitions that show logical relationships between events, reasons, conditions, and outcomes.

List of Signal Words – Spatial Signals

Spatial Signals answer the “where” question. The list includes: between, below, about, left, alongside, here, right, near, middle, east, south, under, across, toward, outside, over, in, next to, on, there, these, this, west, around, away, into, beyond, opposite, inside, out, adjacent, by, close to, side, beside, north, in front of, behind, above, upon, far.

🔑 Definition — Spatial Signals: Transitions that describe location, position, or physical arrangement of objects or ideas.

List of Signal Words – Comparison-Contrast Signals

Comparison-Contrast Signals indicate that the writer will compare idea A with idea B. The list includes: and, or, also, too, either, more than, even, much as, but, yet, opposite, though, best, less, same, then, like, different from, however, rather, most, less than, better, half, analogous to, still, although, while.

🔑 Definition — Comparison-Contrast Signals: Transitions that show similarities or differences between two or more ideas.

List of Signal Words – Conclusion Signals

Conclusion Signals end the discussion and may have special importance. The list includes: as a result, finally, from this we see, hence, consequently, in conclusion, last of all, in summary, therefore.

🔑 Definition — Conclusion Signals: Transitions that signal the end of a discussion and often summarize key points or state final implications.

List of Signal Words – Fuzz Signals

Fuzz Signals indicate that the idea is not exact, or the author is not positive and wishes to qualify a statement. The list includes: almost, if, looks like, maybe, except, nearly, seems like, sort of, could, should, might, was reported, probably, some, alleged, reputed, purported.

🔑 Definition — Fuzz Signals: Transitions that qualify a statement, indicating uncertainty, approximation, or that information comes from a less-than-certain source.

Non-Word Emphasis Signals

Beyond words, emphasis can be created using non-word signals: exclamation point (!), underline, italics, bold type, subheads (like “The Conclusion”), indentation of paragraph, graphic illustrations, numbered points (1, 2, 3), very short sentence (e.g., “Stop war.”), and “quotation marks.”

🔑 Definition — Non-Word Emphasis Signals: Typographic, formatting, or structural techniques that draw attention to important content.

Practice with Signal Words – Examples and Exercise

The lecture provides two annotated examples. Example 1 on creative thinking identifies nine signal words in context, including classification signals (“five stages”), sequence signals (“first,” “second,” “then,” “next,” “followed by,” “finally”), and definition signals (“by illumination, we refer to”). Example 2 on handwriting analysis identifies seven signal words, including classification (“personality types,” “this type,” “third type”), sequence (“first,” “second,” “third”), and conclusion (“therefore”).

The exercise asks students to join pairs of sentences using specific conjunctions or transitions:

1. Use “because” to join: The Harrisons were having a party. Their daughter was getting engaged.
2. Use “therefore” to join: The police issued a warning on the radio. A dangerous man had escaped from hospital.
3. Use “however” to join: Marie was worried about the killer. Her husband was only worried about the car.
4. Use “so” to join: George went to find help. The car broke down.
5. Use “since” to join: Marie could not walk in the rain. Her clothes were not suitable.
6. Use “so that” to join: No-one could see her. Marie hid under a blanket.
7. Use “as a result” to join: Marie heard a strange sound on the roof. She became very frightened.
8. Use “as” to join: The knocking continued all night. Marie could not sleep.
9. Use a conjunction to join: Several policemen leapt out. One of them rushed towards the car.
10. Use a conjunction to join: The policeman told Marie not to look back. She could not help it.

📌 Example (Exercise 1): Task: Join with “because” Answer: The Harrisons were having a party because their daughter was getting engaged.

📌 Example (Exercise 2): Task: Join with “therefore” Answer: The police issued a warning on the radio; therefore, a dangerous man had escaped from hospital.

⭐ Key Takeaways

1. Signal words create coherence — without them, writing feels choppy and disconnected; with them, ideas flow logically and readers can follow the argument easily.
2. Different signal words serve different functions — knowing whether you need to continue an idea, change direction, show sequence, illustrate, emphasize, indicate cause/result, describe location, compare/contrast, conclude, or qualify a statement determines which transition to use.
3. Non-word techniques also signal emphasis — formatting tools like bold, italics, exclamation points, numbered lists, and subheads can be as powerful as verbal transitions for guiding reader attention.
4. Signal words are not optional in professional writing — using appropriate transitions distinguishes amateur from polished journalistic writing, as shown by the before-and-after comparison of the “Benefits of Private Vehicles” paragraph.
5. The skill requires active practice — the exercise demonstrates that writers must consciously choose the right conjunction or transition (because, therefore, however, so, since, so that, as a result, as) to establish the precise logical relationship between ideas.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the main difference in coherence between the first and second versions of the “Benefits of Private Vehicles” paragraph?
2. Name the four categories of signal words that would be most appropriate for writing a chronological narrative of events.
3. What is the difference between a “Continuation Signal” and a “Change-of-Direction Signal”? Give one example of each.
4. Which signal word category would you use if you were uncertain about a fact and wanted to qualify your statement?
5. Rewrite the following sentence pair using “however”: “Marie was worried about the killer. Her husband was only worried about the car.”

📘 Lecture 24 — EXPOSITORY WRITING

📖 Overview: This lecture defines expository writing as a mode focused on informing, explaining, describing, or defining a subject. It covers the guidelines, organizational structure, and various patterns for writing exposition, and then provides a comprehensive list of logical fallacies that writers must avoid to maintain strong, logical arguments.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining expository writing and providing example topics, then presents guidelines and organizational structure for writing exposition. It details five expository patterns (Description, Sequence/Process, Comparison, Cause/Effect, Problem/Solution) with examples. The second major section provides an extensive catalog of logical fallacies—including Appeal to Authority, Appeal to Emotion, False Dilemma, Slippery Slope, and many others—each with definitions and examples drawn from everyday communication.

📝 Lecture Summary

Expository Writing

Expository writing is a mode of writing in which the purpose of the author is to inform, explain, describe, or define his or her subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to ‘expose’ information and is the most frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and universities. A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and provides facts in order to inform its reader. It should be unbiased, accurate, and use a scholarly third person tone. The text needs to encompass all aspects of the subject.

🔑 Definition — Expository Writing: a mode of writing where the author’s purpose is to inform, explain, describe, or define a subject to the reader.

Examples of expository writing can be found in magazine and newspaper articles, non-fiction books, travel brochures, business reports, memorandums, professional journal and encyclopedia articles. One of the most familiar forms is the five-paragraph essay, which features an introduction with a clear thesis statement, three main body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Example topics include alcohol, animal experimentation, capital punishment, censorship, endangered species, gambling, biological weapons, genetic engineering, global warming, homosexuality, immigration, internet privacy, old homes, nuclear weapons, student gangs, and medical ethics.

Expository writing is difficult because: some arguments may be irrelevant or unreasonable; the reader may disagree strongly; and these topics are harder than writing about a person or place you know well.

Expository Writing: Guidelines

1. Keep your temper.
2. Don’t attack people of a different race or religion.
3. Consider both sides of a topic.
4. Don’t exaggerate.
5. Provide proof or examples if you make a claim or a statement.
6. Avoid dogmatic words like always, never, only, etc.

Expository Writing: Organization

1. Opening
2. Discuss both sides
3. Give your opinion
4. Conclusion

Pattern: Description

The author describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples. It provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds. Cue Words: for example, the characteristics are...

📌 Example: “Expository essays are written by students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. For example, a student might use a descriptive pattern to emphasize the features and characteristics of a topic.”

Pattern: Sequence or Process

The author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order. Cue Words: first, second, third; next; then; finally

📌 Example: “Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different patterns may be employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the introduction, the thesis, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph… The introduction contains the thesis statement… The body paragraphs follow… Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph… Every expository essay contains these features, in this order.”

Pattern: Comparison

The author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. A comparison essay usually discusses similarities, while the contrast essay discusses differences. Cue Words: different; in contrast; alike; same as; on the other hand

📌 Example: “Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an expository essay is factual and straight-forward while the content of a creative story is imaginative and symbolic. Expository essays are written for a general audience but creative stories are designed for a specific audience. The writing style of an expository essay is formal, standard and academic, while a creative story uses an informal and artistic style. The organization of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the other hand, the organization of a creative story is more arbitrary and artistic. Finally… An expository essay is written to inform and instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.”

Pattern: Cause / Effect

The author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or experiences. A cause essay usually discusses reasons why something happened; an effect essay discusses what happens after a specific event. Cue Words: reasons why; if...then; as a result; therefore; because

📌 Example: “There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic games or watch them on television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people of the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life… They like to identify with someone else's individual sacrifice and accomplishment. National pride is another reason… There are national medal counts and people keep track of how many medals their country's athletes have won.”

Pattern: Problem / Solution

The author states a problem and lists one or more solutions. A variation is the question-and-answer format. Cue Words: the problem is; the dilemma is; puzzle is solved; question...answer

📌 Example: “One problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and expensive to operate. The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money… In 1984, Los Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be official sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonald's paid a lot of money to be part of the Olympics. Many buildings that were already built in the Los Angeles area were also used.”

💡 Why this matters: Knowing these patterns helps writers structure expository essays effectively, choosing the best organizational method for the topic and audience.

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Strong, logical arguments are essential in writing. The use of faulty logic or reasoning to reach conclusions discredits arguments and shows lack of support and reasoning. This section lists common logical fallacies—errors in reasoning—that are most commonly encountered in everyday communication.

🔑 Definition — Logical Fallacies: errors in reasoning that use faulty logic or reasoning to reach conclusions, discrediting arguments.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY: Accepting someone’s argument because of his or her authority in a field unrelated to the argument, rather than evaluating the argument on its own merits. (Also called Argumentum ad Verecundiam or “argument from modesty”) 📌 Example: “My dentist says she’s voting for the conservative candidate, so I will too.”

APPEAL TO EMOTION: Exploiting the audience’s feelings to convert them to a particular viewpoint. Appeals to fear, flattery, ridicule, pity, or spite are among the most common forms. Writers should avoid appeals to emotion when reason and logic are expected. 📌 Example: “I’m sure someone with your vast experience can see that plan B is better.” (Appeal to flattery)

APPEAL TO IGNORANCE: Basing a conclusion solely on the absence of knowledge. (Also called Argumentum ad Ignoratiam) 📌 Example: “I’ve never seen an alien, so they must not exist.”

APPEAL TO POPULAR OPINION: Claiming that a position is true because most people believe it is. (Also called Argumentum ad Populum) 📌 Example: “Everyone cheats on their income taxes, so it must be all right.”

ATTACKING THE PERSON: Discrediting an argument by attacking the person who makes it, rather than the argument itself. (Also called Poisoning the Well or Argumentum ad Hominem) 📌 Example: “Don’t listen to Becky’s opinion on welfare; she just opposes it because she’s from a rich family.”

BEGGING THE QUESTION: Using a premise to prove a conclusion when the premise itself assumes the conclusion is true. (Also called Circular Argument, Circulus in Probando, Petitio Principii) 📌 Example: “I know I can trust Janine because she says that I can.”

COMPLEX QUESTION: Combining two questions or issues as if they were one, when really they should be answered or discussed separately. Often involves one question that assumes the answer to another. 📌 Example: “Why did you steal the CD?” (Assumes you did steal the CD.)

COMPOSITION: Assuming that because parts have certain properties, the whole does as well. (The reverse of Division) 📌 Example: “All the parts of the engine were lightweight, so the engine should have been lightweight.”

CORRELATION IMPLIES CAUSATION: Concluding that because two things occur at the same time, one has caused the other. (Also called Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc) 📌 Example: “There was a full moon the night I had my car accident, so I’m never driving again under a full moon.”

DIVISION: Assuming that because a large body has certain properties, its parts do as well. (The reverse of Composition) 📌 Example: “Europe has great museums, so every country in Europe must have great museums.”

EQUIVOCATION: Applying the same term but using differing meanings. 📌 Example: “The sign by the pond said, ‘Fine for swimming,’ so I dove right in.”

FALSE CAUSE AND EFFECT: Claiming that because one event occurred before a second, it caused the second. (Also called Coincidental Correlation and Post-Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc) 📌 Example: “Yesterday I ate broccoli and then failed my test. I’m never eating broccoli before a test again.”

FALSE DILEMMA: Suggesting only two solutions to a problem when other options are also available. (Also called Bifurcation) 📌 Example: “America—love it or leave it!”

HASTY GENERALIZATIONS: Arriving at a conclusion based on inadequate evidence or a sample that is too small. 📌 Example: “I liked the last Chinese restaurant I went to, so I will like every Chinese restaurant in the world.”

IGNORING THE ISSUE: Shifting the reader’s attention from the real issue to a different argument that might be valid, but is unrelated to the first. (Also called Arguing beside the Point and Ignoratio Elenchi) 📌 Example: “No, the criminal won’t say where he was on the night of the crime, but he does remember being abused repeatedly as an innocent child.”

RED HERRING: Introducing an unrelated or invalid point to distract the reader from the actual argument. (Appeal to Emotion, Attacking the Person, Ignoring the Issue, and Straw Man are examples.)

SLIPPERY SLOPE: Assuming a chain of cause-effect relationships with very suspect connections. 📌 Example: “If I give you a free ticket, then I’ll have to give everyone a free ticket. Then my boss will get mad and fire me, and I will become homeless. So giving you a free ticket will make me homeless.”

STACKING THE DECK: When a writer tries to prove a point by focusing on only one side of the argument while ignoring the other. 📌 Example: “Obviously the United States and China should have a free trade agreement, since it would reduce prices, increase efficiency, and pave the way to greater cultural exchange.”

STRAW MAN: Attacking one of the opposition’s unimportant or small arguments, while ignoring the opposition’s best argument. 📌 Example: “People from Quebec want to secede from Canada to get their own currency. Don’t they realize money isn’t everything?”

⭐ Key Takeaways

Expository writing is defined by its purpose to inform, explain, describe, or define, using a factual, unbiased, third-person tone, and is commonly structured as a five-paragraph essay or organized using specific patterns (Description, Sequence, Comparison, Cause/Effect, Problem/Solution). Writers must follow clear guidelines: stay calm, consider both sides, provide proof, and avoid dogmatic language. The second half of the lecture catalogues logical fallacies as errors in reasoning that undermine arguments; students must recognize and avoid them in their own writing. A strong argument requires sound logic, not emotional manipulation, irrelevant attacks, or unsupported claims. Understanding these concepts is essential for producing credible, effective expository writing in academic and professional settings.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the primary purpose of expository writing, and what tone and style should it use?
2. List the four steps in the basic organizational structure for an expository essay.
3. Name three different expository writing patterns discussed in the lecture and their cue words.
4. What is the difference between the “Appeal to Authority” and “Appeal to Popular Opinion” logical fallacies?
5. Provide an original example of the “Slippery Slope” fallacy.

📘 Lecture 25 — THE WRITING STYLES: REPORT and NARRATIVE WRITING

📖 Overview: This lecture distinguishes between two fundamental writing styles essential for journalistic and professional communication: report writing and narrative writing. It provides a detailed, standardized format for constructing formal reports and explores the principles of crafting compelling narrative essays that tell a story to make a point.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining report writing as orderly, objective communication of factual information serving a specific purpose, then details the complete manuscript format for formal reports including its 14 components. It distinguishes two types of short reports (memo and letter) and their body structure focusing on terms of reference, procedures, findings, conclusions, and recommendations, while also providing formatting guidelines for headings and illustrations. The lecture then transitions to narrative writing, defining it as storytelling that often serves as a reflection or exploration of the author’s values, and outlines five key features necessary for a successful narrative essay, including the use of anecdotes, first-person point of view, and lively, descriptive language.

📝 Lecture Summary

REPORT WRITING:

Reports are orderly and objective communication of factual information that serves some specific purpose.

1. MANUSCRIPT FORMAT

The manuscript format must be presented in the following precise order:

1. Flap
2. Title page
3. Abstract
4. Acknowledgement
5. Table of contents
6. Table of illustration
7. Introduction
8. Findings
9. Conclusion
10. Recommendations
11. Appendices
12. References or Bibliography
13. Footnotes
14. Index

SHORT REPORTS:

These are two types: Memo and Letter type. The actual difference lies in the body of this document.

Body of short report:

1. Terms of reference
2. Procedures
3. Findings
4. Conclusion
5. Recommendations

Do not use the automatic formatting features of your word processor such as endnotes, footnotes, headers, footers, boxes etc. Provide appropriate headings and subheadings as in the journal. We use the following hierarchy: BOLD CAPS, bold lower case, Plain Text, Italics. Cite illustrations in numerical order (fig 1, fig 2 etc) as they are first mentioned in the text. Tables must be embedded where cited in the text.

🔑 Definition — [Report Writing]: orderly and objective communication of factual information that serves some specific purpose.

NARRATIVE WRITING:

Narrative writing tells a story. In essays the narrative writing could also be considered reflection or an exploration of the author's values told as a story. The author may remember his or her past, or a memorable person or event from that past, or even observe the present. When you're writing a narrative essay, loosen up. After all, you're basically just telling a story to someone, something you probably do every day in casual conversation. Use first person and talk it through first. You might even want to either tape record your story as if you were telling it to someone for the first time or actually tell it to a friend. Once you get the basic story down, then you can begin turning it into an essay. If you feel that you lack life experience, then you may choose to write about someone else or write about an observation you've made about a recent event. The important aspect to remember is that you should have a story. In a successful narrative essay, the author usually makes a point.

Features

1. The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what kind of narrative essay it is (an event or recurring activity, a personal experience, or an observation), and it should have a conclusion that makes a point.
2. The essay should include anecdotes. The author should describe the person, the scene, or the event in some detail. It's okay to include dialogue as long as you know how to punctuate it correctly and as long as you avoid using too much.
3. The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your description and thoughts lead the reader to reflect on the human experience. For instance, I read an excellent student essay that told the story of a young woman forced to shoot several wolves that were attacking her cattle. She told her story and included the inner struggle she faced as she made the choice of saving the cattle or saving the wolves. She shot the wolves, but learned that whatever her choice had been, she would not have been comfortable with it. One of life's lessons is that sometimes there is no right choice, and that was the point of the essay.
4. The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The use of "I" invites your readers into an intimate discussion.
5. The writing in your essay should be lively and show some style. Try to describe ideas and events in new and different ways. Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic story down, get it organized, and in your final editing process, work on word choice.

🔑 Definition — [Narrative Writing]: writing that tells a story, often considered a reflection or exploration of the author's values. 💡 Why this matters: While report writing requires objective, factual communication structured for clarity and purpose, narrative writing allows the author to engage the reader emotionally by telling a personal story and making a specific point, using first-person perspective and descriptive details.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that report writing is defined as orderly and objective communication of factual information with a specific purpose, and its formal manuscript format must follow a strict 14-component sequence from flap to index. Short reports, either memo or letter type, should contain five critical body sections: terms of reference, procedures, findings, conclusion, and recommendations. In contrast, narrative writing is fundamentally storytelling that often explores the author's values, and a successful narrative essay must have a clear introduction, a conclusion that makes a point, suggestive anecdotes leading to reflection on the human experience, and a lively, personal writing style typically in first person.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the 14 components of the manuscript format for a formal report, and in which specific order must they be presented?
2. What are the two types of short reports, and what five sections make up the body of a short report?
3. According to the lecture, what is the core difference between report writing and narrative writing?
4. Name the five features of a successful narrative essay as outlined in the lecture.
5. What is the recommended point of view for a narrative essay, and why is it used?

📘 Lecture 26 — The Writing Styles: Descriptive and Persuasive Writings

📖 Overview: This lecture explores two fundamental writing styles essential for journalistic and academic work: descriptive writing, which paints vivid pictures through sensory details, and persuasive writing, which aims to convince an audience of a particular viewpoint. Mastering these styles enables writers to engage readers emotionally and logically, making their work more impactful and memorable.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with descriptive writing, defining it, providing examples, and outlining its key characteristics including sensory details, figurative language, precise language, and organization. It then covers the dos and don’ts of description, focusing on dominant impression, “show, don’t tell,” observation, using all five senses, and strong verbs. The second half shifts to persuasive writing, explaining persuasion, creating a thesis through topic selection and position, supporting the thesis with premises and rhetorical tactics (logos, ethos, pathos), understanding the audience, addressing alternative perspectives, traditional structure, common techniques, visual appeals, and four rhetorical devices.

📝 Lecture Summary

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

Descriptive writing is the act or art of writing to describe places, people, objects, sounds, tastes, smells, or anything that can be captured in words. A descriptive writer is like a painter, using colourful adjectives and adverbs to render description so precisely that the reader sees, hears, smells, tastes, or touches the object exactly as the writer intends. The writer does not tell the reader that the flower is beautiful; they show the flower is beautiful, making the reader feel part of the writer's experience.

A good example of descriptive writing in modern literature is the Hobbit series by J. R. R. Tolkien. For instance, instead of saying, “He bit into the apple and it tasted good,” descriptive writing would convey: “He slowly closed his teeth on the ripe, succulent, ruby colour apple. The crunch of his teeth piercing the apple’s skin was deafening and the sweet juices of the apple ran down his chin. The taste of the meat was as sweet as candy and he felt euphoric.”

Descriptive writing is used in all modes of writing (Expository, Narrative, and Persuasive) to create a vivid and lasting impression. Examples include stories, poems, essays, and reports.

Characteristics of Good Descriptive Writing

1. Includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and appeal to all of the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste when appropriate. It may also paint pictures of the feelings the person, place, or thing invokes in the writer.

2. Often makes use of figurative language such as analogies, similes, and metaphors to help paint the picture in the reader's mind.

3. Uses precise language. General adjectives, nouns, and passive verbs do not have a place in good descriptive writing. Use specific adjectives and nouns and strong action verbs to give life to the picture.

4. Is organized. Some ways to organize descriptive writing include chronological (time), spatial (location), and order of importance. When describing a person, you might begin with a physical description, followed by how that person thinks, feels, and acts.

DOS’ AND DON’TS OF DESCRIPTION

Dominant Impression

The key element in writing a memorable description is the point of view of the writer. The dominant impression is the way the writer feels about the object of the description. For instance, a writer may regard a place as hospitable and inviting, or as cold and forbidding. In conveying the chosen dominant impression, the writer must both select details carefully and present them with the impression in mind. All good descriptions are crafted with steady attention to the dominant impression.

"Show, Don’t Tell"

This is the fundamental principle of descriptive writing. ‘Telling’ the reader about something comes off as flat, vague, and not particularly memorable; ‘showing’ the reader the object, describing it in such a way as to paint it in words and bring it to life, renders the object far more vivid, visible, and active.

Telling is summarizing. For example: "It was a nice room, a warm room. It was a happy place to be." The reader cannot see or feel the room.

Showing presents details. For example: “Sunlight pours through the window, pooling on the down comforter which lies across the bed. A block of light also angles across the wall opposite the bed, highlighting the pale orange color of the room. A thick red carpet sprawls over the floor, a corner of it lit too by a sunbeam; the room’s windows admit the sun along two walls, and tiny dust motes hover in the bright streaks which glaze the room.” Here the writer never says "warm" but demonstrates the quality through details.

Observation

It isn’t possible to create a unique description without first taking time to observe. The writer seeks not only the general details but the specific details which make the object unique. For example, instead of just noting an apple is red and round, observe: “The apple has two leaves still attached to the stem; it doesn’t stand straight when resting on a tabletop, on its left side a streak of yellow shines underneath the red, a small bruise hangs just below the apple’s crown on its back side.”

Using All Five Senses

The best descriptive writing evokes objects through more than just sight. The more a writer can capture an object through senses such as sound, smell, touch, and even taste, the more vivid and unique the description becomes.

Strong Verbs

Good descriptive writing employs the use of strong, specific verbs, avoiding the verb ‘to be’. For example, "The sunlight was on the propane tank" becomes "The sunlight stretched over the propane tank." The more unexpected the verb, the more specific and memorable a sentence will be.

• Example: "We had a really nice dinner" becomes "We enjoyed a tasty meal."
• Example: "The street was empty and full of shadows" becomes "The street lay empty, full of shadows."
• Example: "The children had a great time at the circus" becomes "The children shared a thrilling night at the circus."

Place Description

The goal is to be able to offer the reader a portrait of the object that evokes the dominant impression the writer wishes to create. Writers are usually aiming not only to render a clear portrait but also to evoke a feeling.

Descriptions of People

As with place, descriptions of people aim to portray basic features and personality. This is done through the details the writer chooses to focus on, rather than through telling. The writer never says "he was quite uptight" but attempts to array details to convey this impression.

A Master at Work

George Orwell's “Shooting an Elephant” demonstrates masterful description, drawing on the sense of touch, hearing, and sight: “When I pulled the trigger I did not hear the bang or feel the kick—one never does when a shot goes home—but I heard the devilish roar of glee that went up from the crowd. In that instant, in too short a time, one would have thought, even for the bullet to get there, a mysterious, terrible change had come over the elephant. He neither stirred nor fell, but every line of his body had altered. He looked suddenly stricken, shrunken, immensely old, as though the frightful impact of the bullet had paralyzed him without knocking him down. At last, after what seemed a long time—it might have been five seconds, I dare say—he sagged flabbily to his knees. His mouth slobbered ....”

PERSUASIVE WRITING

WHAT IS PERSUASION?

The art of persuasion is the art of finding the best available means of moving a specific audience in a specific situation to a specific decision. Persuasive writing analyzes the various sides of an issue while arguing a viewpoint.

CREATING A THESIS

The foundation of a persuasive paper is the thesis (often called a claim). To create an effective thesis, you must select an appropriate topic and decide on your position.

SELECT A TOPIC

Persuasive writing addresses topics that are controversial or stimulate discussion. To select a topic, consider what issues you feel strongly about and what topic you would like to learn more about. Once selected, write down everything you know, then research the issue thoroughly to become an expert and understand all sides.

DECIDE ON A POSITION

The position you decide upon becomes your thesis statement or claim. This claim will set limits on your topic and allude to the organization of your paper. Be sure your thesis is arguable. Avoid arguing about:

• Indisputable facts (e.g., heart disease is deadly)
• Preferences (e.g., some people don't like to scuba dive)
• Religion and other deep-rooted beliefs (these are beyond empirical analysis)

SUPPORTING YOUR THESIS

After deciding on a claim, identify premises to support the thesis. These premises will be stated in your thesis statement in the order they will be addressed. Use the persuasive techniques of logos, ethos, and pathos.

DEVELOP PREMISES

Premises are the evidence that supports your thesis and make up the bulk of your paper. For example, if arguing that the US should not trade with countries that commit human rights violations, premises might be: (1) Trading philosophically encourages further violations. (2) US industries would exploit people. (3) The violating country will be harmed by lack of trade and stop exploiting workers.

THE TACTICS OF RHETORIC

• Logos: Appeal to reason by using facts, statistics, research, and logical arguments. This is the most convincing technique in academic writing.
• Ethos: Appeal to the credibility or character of the author or quoted people. Use credible sources and prove your own credibility with good academic writing and tone.
• Pathos: Appeal to emotion, values, and beliefs. Include personal stories and use appropriate word choice to emphasize emotion. In academic writing, this technique should be used with care.

Pathos Principle 1: Know your Audience.

• They are concerned about local issues and local people (make local arguments).
• They make decisions with both their minds and hearts (appeal to both).
• They feel financially pressured (show how programs save or bring money).

Pathos Principle 2: Know what moves your Audience.

• Ask what they commonly want and what your program’s results are.
• Give information short and simple, with facts and figures that prove help.

Ethos Principle 1: Write like a Professional.

• To be trusted, your readers must believe you are competent. Ensure data, names, spelling, and grammar are correct.

Ethos Principle 2: Write like a Person.

• Never talk down to or over the heads of your audience. Tell your story simply, aiming for a 10th-grade level. Use simple familiar words, avoid jargon and acronyms, use short simple sentences, and show rather than tell.

Logos Principle 1: Make your argument clear.

• Answer the basic questions (5W’s & 1H). State activities and results plainly, choose clear words, a common vocabulary, active verbs, and concrete nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

Logos Principle 2: Organize your argument.

• An organized argument guides an audience through your reasoning process, offers a clear explanation of each argued point, and demonstrates the credibility of the writer.

UNDERSTANDING YOUR AUDIENCE

You must understand your audience to support your thesis in a manner convincing to them. Ask:

• What is the audience’s knowledge level?
• What is their attitude towards the topic?
• What are their values and beliefs?

These questions help establish a professional and reasonable tone. Assume your audience is intelligent—never sound condescending—but thoroughly explain concepts.

LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES

Addressing alternative perspectives is essential. This can be done just after the introduction, just before the conclusion, or throughout the paper. Alternative perspectives should be treated fairly—think about what others believe and why. From there, you can either refute (show why your view is stronger) or concede (agree and acknowledge complexity), then follow with a strong point. Always build on common ground.

TIPS

• Use third person rather than first or second person.
• Use examples and vivid descriptions rather than telling your reader what to feel.
• Avoid absolutes and hasty generalizations such as always, never, or all people.
• Use evidence that is recent, relevant, and impartial.
• Follow basic essay format with introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.
• Include proper in-text citations and a Works Cited/Bibliography/References page.

TRADITIONAL STRUCTURE IN PERSUASIVE WRITING

The traditional parts that strengthen an argument include:

• Exordium (introduction)
• Narration (background statement of facts)
• Partition (forecast of topics)
• Conformation (body of the text)
• Refutation (discussion of alternatives)
• Peroration (conclusion; often helpful to tie back to the introduction)

COMMON TECHNIQUES

1. Emphasizing benefits while ignoring drawbacks
2. Writing in active voice rather than passive voice
3. Writing in short sentences and shorter words
4. Creating a list of 'For and Against' points
5. Capturing the reader's interest from the first sentence
6. Using connectives e.g., Furthermore, Moreover, Therefore
7. Making opposing facts seem like problems
8. Using a lively anecdote
9. Asking rhetorical questions
10. Using "in fact" and "indeed" to strengthen viewpoint
11. Using "however" to offer a contrasting viewpoint
12. Ending with a positive and interesting statement

Visual Appeals

Visual appeals can add to the effectiveness of the written word. Complementing visuals can help strengthen arguments and improve visual rhetoric by making the page more appealing and accessible.

FOUR RHETORICAL DEVICES

1. PARALLEL STRUCTURE: Using similar grammatical structures for effect.

   • Example: Churchill’s speech: “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas and oceans...”

2. TRIADS: Grouping ideas in threes for impact.

   • Example: Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech: “...we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands...”

3. ANTITHESIS: Juxtaposing contrasting ideas for emphasis.

   • Example: President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
   • State motto: Live Free or Die.

4. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS: Questions asked to make a point, not to get an answer.

   • Example: Patrick Henry’s speech: “Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!”

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture equips you with two distinct but complementary writing styles. For descriptive writing, always remember the cardinal rule: show, don’t tell—use vivid sensory details, strong verbs, and precise language to paint a picture for your reader, focusing on a dominant impression. For persuasive writing, the foundation is a clear, arguable thesis supported by logical premises and the three rhetorical appeals of logos (reason), ethos (credibility), and pathos (emotion). Crucially, a successful persuasive argument requires understanding your audience and fairly addressing alternative perspectives, while employing devices like parallel structure, triads, antithesis, and rhetorical questions for added impact. Finally, for journalistic writing, remember that descriptive elements can powerfully enhance persuasive pieces, and visual appeals can strengthen your written argument.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the fundamental difference between "showing" and "telling" in descriptive writing, and why is "showing" more effective?
2. List and explain the four key characteristics of good descriptive writing as outlined in the lecture.
3. What are the three tactics of rhetoric (logos, ethos, pathos), and which one is considered the most convincing technique in academic writing?
4. What is the purpose of addressing alternative perspectives in persuasive writing, and what are the two possible ways to handle them?
5. Name all four rhetorical devices discussed in the lecture and provide a brief example for each.

📘 Lecture 27 — Research Writing and Documenting Sources

📖 Overview: This lecture outlines the systematic steps of research writing, from topic selection to final proofreading. It explains why global citation formats like APA and MLA are essential for academic credibility, and provides detailed instructions on how to properly cite sources using both styles, including reference pages and parenthetical citations.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the 11-step research writing process, the rationale for using global citation formats (APA, MLA), and the two main components of APA style (reference page and parenthetical citations). It then provides the same detailed treatment for MLA style, including works cited pages and parenthetical citations, with numerous examples of how to handle various source types and special citation situations.

📝 Lecture Summary

Research Writing Steps

Research writing follows a systematic 11-step process. First, select a topic and then frame a central research question with a set of sub-questions. Next, survey the topic broadly and locate materials for your research. You should then re-evaluate your topic and research strategy based on what you find. After gathering sources, evaluate your sources for credibility and relevance, then work with your sources by taking notes and organizing information. From there, develop your thesis and supporting argument, then use sources fairly and accurately by integrating and citing your sources. Finally, revise your work and edit and proofread before submission.

💡 Why this matters: Following a structured research process prevents common pitfalls like choosing an unmanageable topic or committing unintentional plagiarism.

Why Use Global Format (APA, MLA etc.)?

Global formats serve four critical purposes. First, they allow readers to cross-reference your sources easily — this cross-referencing system enables researchers to locate your source material for their own projects. Second, they provide consistent format within a discipline — using standard APA or MLA properly helps you communicate effectively with other researchers who use these formats. Third, gives you credibility as a writer — proper use of global format demonstrates accountability to source material. Fourth, protects yourself from plagiarism — plagiarism is a serious offense in university, professional, and intellectual circles and may result in punishments.

APA Style: Two Main Concerns

APA style has two main concerns: the Reference Page and Parenthetical Citations. Most citations should contain the author's name, title of work, and publication information.

🔑 Definition — Reference Page: A list at the end of the paper containing full bibliographic information for all sources cited.

📐 Format: Author. (Year). Title of work. Location: Publisher

Reference Examples:

📌 Example (Generic): O'Connor. (1990). Express Yourself in Written English. Illinois: NTS

📌 Example (Book): Shay, J. (1994). Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character. New York: Touchstone.

📌 Example (Magazine Article): Klein, J. (1998, October 5). Dizzy days. The New Yorker, pp. 40-45.

📌 Example (Web Page): Poland, D. (1998, October 26). The hot button. Roughcut. Retrieved October 28, 1998, from http://www.roughcut.com

📌 Example (Newspaper Article): Tommasini, A. (1998, October 27). Master teachers whose artistry glows in private. New York Times, p. B2.

📌 Example (No known author): Cigarette sales fall 30% as California tax rises. (1999, September 14). New York Times, p. A17.

When Should You Use Parenthetical Citations?

You should use parenthetical citations in three situations. First, when quoting any words that are not your own — quoting means to repeat another source word for word, using quotation marks. Second, when summarizing facts and ideas from a source — summarizing means to take ideas from a large passage of another source and condense them using your own words. Third, when paraphrasing a source — paraphrasing means to use the ideas from another source but change the phrasing into your own words.

Most citations should contain the author's name, publication year, and page number.

🔑 Definition — Parenthetical Citation: A brief reference within the text that directs readers to the full citation in the reference list.

📌 Example: "Seek first to understand, then to be understood." (Covey, 1992, p. 45)

Handling Quotes in Your Text

The author's last name, publication year, and page number(s) of quote must appear in the text. You can integrate the author's name into the sentence or place it in parentheses.

📌 Example (Author integrated): Caruth (1996) states that a traumatic response frequently entails a "delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena" (p. 11).

📌 Example (Author in parentheses): A traumatic response frequently entails a "delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena" (Caruth, 1996, p. 11).

Handling Parenthetical Citations (Special Cases)

Sometimes additional information is necessary for proper citation:

1. More than one author with the same last name: (H. James, 1878); (W. James, 1880)
2. Two or more works in the same parentheses: (Caruth, 1996; Fussell, 1975; Showalter, 1997)
3. Work with six or more authors: (Smith et al., 1998)
4. Specific part of a source: (Jones, 1995, chap. 2)
5. No known author — use abbreviated version of title: Full title: "California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers"; Citation: ("California," 1999)
6. Personal communication: (C. E. Koop, personal communication, May 16, 1998)
7. General reference to a website: (http://www.bartleby.com)

📌 Example integrating multiple citations: Recently, the history of warfare has been significantly revised by Higonnet et al. (1987), Marcus (1989), and Raitt and Tate (1997) to include women's personal and cultural responses to battle and its resultant traumatic effects. Feminist researchers now concur that "It is no longer true to claim that women's responses to the war have been ignored" (Raitt & Tate, p. 2). However, Tylee (1990) further criticizes Fussell, arguing that his study "treated memory and culture as if they belonged to a sphere beyond the existence of individuals or the control of institutions" (p. 6).

CROSS-REFERENCING: USING MLA FORMAT

MLA style has two parts: the Works Cited Page and Parenthetical Citations. Most citations should contain the author's name, title of work, and publication information.

Works Cited Examples:

📌 Example (Book): Byatt, A. S. Babel Tower. New York: Random House, 1996.

📌 Example (Magazine Article): Klein, Joe. "Dizzy Days." The New Yorker 5 Oct. 1998: 40-45.

📌 Example (Web Page): Poland, Dave. "The Hot Button." Roughcut 26 Oct. 1998. Turner Network Television. 28 Oct. 1998 <www.roughcut.com>.

📌 Example (Newspaper): Tommasini, Anthony. "Master Teachers Whose Artistry Glows in Private." New York Times 27 Oct. 1998: B2.

📌 Example (No known author): "Cigarette Sales Fall 30% as California Tax Rises." New York Times 14 Sept. 1999: A17.

📌 Example (TV Interview): McGwire, Mark. Interview with Matt Lauer. The Today Show. NBC. WTHR, Indianapolis. 22 Oct. 1998.

📌 Example (Personal Interview): Mellencamp, John. Personal interview. 27 Oct. 1998.

Keys to Parenthetical Citations (MLA)

Most citations should contain the author's name and page number.

📌 Example: "Seek first to understand, then to be understood" (Covey 45).

📌 Example (Author integrated): Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263).

Handling Parenthetical Citations: Special Cases (MLA)

1. More than one author with same last name: (W. Wordsworth 23); (D. Wordsworth 224)
2. More than one work by same author: (Joyce, Portrait 121); (Joyce, Ulysses 556)
3. Different volumes of multivolume work: (1: 336)
4. Citing indirect sources: (Johnson qtd. in Boswell 2:450)
5. No known author — use abbreviated title: Full title: "California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers"; Citation: ("California" A14)
6. Source is one page or web page with no pagination: (Poland)

Handling Long Quotations (MLA)

For long quotations (more than four lines), indent the entire passage and do not use quotation marks. The parenthetical citation goes after the final period.

📌 Example: David becomes identified and defined by James Steerforth, a young man with whom David is acquainted from his days at Salem House. Before meeting Steerforth, David accepts Steerforth's name as an authoritative power:

There was an old door in this playground, on which the boys had a custom of carving their names. . . . In my dread of the end of the vacation and their coming back, I could not read a boy's name, without inquiring in what tone and with what emphasis he would read, "Take care of him. He bites." There was one boy—a certain J. Steerforth—who cut his name very deep and very often, who I conceived, would read it in a rather strong voice, and afterwards pull my hair. (Dickens 68)

For Steerforth, naming becomes an act of possession, as well as exploitation. Steerforth names David for his fresh look and innocence, but also uses the name Daisy to exploit David's romantic tendencies (Dyson 122).

⭐ Key Takeaways

The research writing process consists of 11 sequential steps, from topic selection through final proofreading, and following this structure ensures thorough and ethical scholarship. Global citation formats like APA and MLA are essential because they enable cross-referencing, provide discipline-consistent formatting, establish writer credibility, and protect against plagiarism. APA style requires both a Reference Page (listing full publication details) and parenthetical citations (containing author, year, and page number) throughout the text. MLA style similarly requires a Works Cited page and parenthetical citations (containing author and page number), with both styles having specific rules for handling special cases like multiple authors, no known authors, and personal communications. The key difference between APA and MLA is that APA includes the publication year in parenthetical citations while MLA typically does not, and their formatting of source entries differs in punctuation and order of elements.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the four reasons for using global citation formats like APA or MLA?

2. In APA style, what three pieces of information must a standard parenthetical citation contain?

3. How do you cite a source with no known author in both APA and MLA styles?

4. According to MLA guidelines, how should you handle a long quotation that exceeds four lines?

5. What is the difference between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing, and why must all three be cited?

📘 Lecture 28 — Summary and Précis Writing

📖 Overview: This lecture defines and distinguishes between summaries, paraphrases, and interpretative critiques in journalistic writing. It provides detailed characteristics of good summaries, step-by-step instructions for writing them, and multiple examples to illustrate the concepts. Understanding these distinctions is essential for accurate and ethical reporting and academic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with a graphic representation differentiating summaries, paraphrases, and interpretations. It defines each genre with key characteristics including use of reported speech, inclusion of outside information, and length relative to original texts. A table compares the three genres, followed by a detailed example of an original text with its summary, paraphrase, and interpretative critique. The lecture then presents characteristics of good summaries (proper citation, thesis statement, supporting ideas, grammar, and length) and provides step-by-step instructions for writing summaries. It concludes with multiple summary examples showing effective versus ineffective summaries.

📝 Lecture Summary

Summary and Précis Writing

A summary is an abridgement expressing the main ideas of a text passage through reported speech. A successful summary is not an exposition of the writer's own opinions, but a distillation of the essential points in an original text.

Three points should be kept in mind: (1) summaries are shorter than original texts, (2) they contain the main ideas of a text, and (3) they are in reported speech.

A paraphrase attempts to express the same ideas of an original text in different words. Different wordings naturally result in slightly different shades of meaning. However, successful paraphrases achieve nearly the same meaning as an original text. No attempt at brevity is made in paraphrasing. Indeed, if extensive circumlocution is used, a paraphrase may be longer than its original text.

An interpretative critique evaluates some (or all) of the issues raised in a text. Successful interpretative critiques offer new critical perspectives regarding some (or all) of the ideas stated in an original passage by introducing information outside of the original text passage.

🔑 Definition — Summary: An abridgement expressing the main ideas of a text passage through reported speech; shorter than the original text, contains main ideas only, and uses reported speech.

🔑 Definition — Paraphrase: An attempt to express the same ideas of an original text in different words; no attempt at brevity is made, and it may be longer than the original.

🔑 Definition — Interpretative Critique: An evaluation of some or all issues raised in a text, offering new critical perspectives by introducing information outside the original text.

Genre Information Table

📌 Example — Original Text: "I am a Taiwanese man, but I have lived in Canada for several years now. I am surprised at how Canadian society respects the rights of women, both at work and home. Personally I believe women in Canada are better off than women in Taiwan. However, some of my female friends in Canada miss the good old days when women were treated in different ways. You see, in the past, gentlemen followed different rules of behavior. They would open the doors for ladies, pull out chairs for ladies to sit down, stand up when a lady left the table, and offer to pay the bill at restaurants. Now, however, most Canadians believe that men and women should be considered equal. For example, women now generally have to pay for their own meals." [133 words]

📌 Example — Summary: "This text describes the experience of a Taiwanese man who has lived in Canada for several years. He considers Canadian women better off than Taiwanese. However, he notes some Canadian women feel nostalgic about the days when they received special courtesies. For example, formerly men opened doors for women or paid for their meals. At this time, most Canadians endeavor to treat men and women equally. Women today therefore are expected to cover the cost of their own meals." [78 words]

📌 Example — Paraphrase: "I'm Taiwanese and have lived in Canada for several years. The way Canadians respect women's rights, both at work and home, is surprising. My opinion is that Canadian women are better off than Taiwanese. Some women in Canada whom I know miss the days when they were treated differently. Behavior standards differed in the past. At one time, men opened doors for women, pulled out chairs for them, and offered to pay their bills when dining out. Now, however, most Canadians believe men and women should be regarded as equals. As a result, women now must generally pay for their own meals." [103 words]

📌 Example — Interpretative Critique: "I think that men and women should be treated equally. In Taiwan this is rarely the case, so in many ways Canadian women are luckier than Taiwanese. Though men often pay for women's meals in Taiwan, they also earn more than women, which is unfair. Most women appreciate courtesies such as having doors opened for them. However, a more pressing need is gender equality - especially in the workplace. Men and women doing the same work should get the same pay. In the future, I hope Taiwanese women will have the same rights as Canadian women." [95 words]

Characteristics of Good Summary

A good summary has the following characteristics:

Proper Citation: The summary begins by citing the title, author, source, and, in the case of a magazine or journal article, the date of publication and the text.

Thesis Statement: The overall thesis of the text selection is the author's central theme. There are several aspects to an effective thesis statement:

• It comprises two parts: a) The topic or general subject matter of the text, and b) The author's major assertion, comment, or position on the topic.
• This central theme is summarized clearly and accurately in a one-sentence thesis statement.
• The thesis statement does not contain specific details discussed in the text.
• The thesis statement is stated at the beginning of the summary.

Supporting Ideas: The author supports his/her thesis with supporting ideas. Use the following basic guidelines:

• Cover all of the author's major supporting ideas.
• Show the relationships among these ideas.
• Omit specifics, such as illustrations, descriptions, and detailed explanations.
• Indicate the author's purpose in writing: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. If the passage is a persuasive piece, report the author's bias or position on the issue.
• Omit all personal opinions, ideas, and inferences. Let the reader know that you are reporting the author's ideas.

Grammar and the Mechanics of Writing: The following are particularly important:

• Restate the ideas in your own words as much as possible. Avoid direct quotations.
• Use transitional words for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
• Edit and rewrite your work.
• Check your grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Length: The length of a summary depends on how long the original document is.

💡 Why this matters: A properly structured summary allows readers to quickly grasp the essential content of a source without reading the original. Mastering these characteristics ensures your summaries are accurate, objective, and useful for both academic and professional purposes.

Steps in Writing a Summary

Step 1 — Read the Article Step 2 — Reread the Article

• Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment deals with one aspect of the central theme. A segment can comprise one or more paragraphs. Note: news magazine articles tend to begin with an anecdote. This is the writer's lead into the article, but does not contain the thesis or supporting ideas. Typically, a feature lead does not constitute a segment of thought.
• Label each segment. Use a general phrase that captures the subject matter of the segment. Write the label in the margin next to the segment.
• Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.

Step 3 — Write One-Sentence Summaries

• Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a separate sheet of paper.

Step 4 — Formulate the Thesis Statement

• Formulate a central theme that weaves the one-sentence segment summaries together. This is your thesis statement.
• In many articles, the author will state this directly. You may wish to take his direct statement of the thesis and restate it in your own words. Note: In news magazine articles, the thesis is often suggested through the article's title and sub-title.
• In other articles, you may have to write your own one-sentence thesis statement that summarizes this central theme.

Step 5 — Write Your First Draft

• Begin with a proper citation of the title, author, source, and date of publication of the article summarized.
• Combine the thesis statement and your one-sentence segment summaries into a one-to-two-paragraph summary.
• Eliminate all unnecessary words and repetitions.
• Eliminate all personal ideas and inferences.
• Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
• Conclude with a "summing up" sentence by stating what can be learned from reading the article.

Step 6 — Edit Your Draft Check your summary by asking the following questions:

• Have I answered who, what, when, why, and how questions?
• Is my grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct?
• Have I left out my personal views and ideas?
• Does my summary "hang together"? Does it flow when I read it aloud?
• Have someone else read it. Does the summary give them the central ideas of the article?

Step 7 — Write Your Final Draft

Example of Summary Writing

Original Passage I: "Height connotes status in many parts of the world. Executive offices are usually on the top floors; the underlings work below. Even being tall can help a person succeed. Studies have shown that employers are more willing to hire men over 6 feet tall than shorter men with the same credentials. Studies of real-world executives and graduates have shown that taller men make more money. In one study, every extra inch of height brought in an extra $1,300 a year. But being too big can be a disadvantage. A tall, brawny football player complained that people found him intimidating off the field and assumed he 'had the brains of a Twinkie.'" (p. 301) — Locker, K. O. (2003). Business and administrative communication (6th Ed) St. Louis, MO: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.

Main points identified:

• Topic sentence: "Height connotes status in many parts of the world."
• Main point: "Even being tall can help a person succeed."
• Main point: "Executive offices are usually on the top"
• Main point: "being too big can be a disadvantage"

📌 Example — Summary A (Too Brief): "Throughout the world, being tall will lead to professional success. In fact, research shows that employers are more likely to hire taller men and to pay them more, as compared to shorter men with the same qualifications (Locker, 2003)." Critique: This summary is too brief. Further, it changes the meaning slightly, giving the impression that being tall guarantees success.

📌 Example — Summary B (Too Long): "In most countries, height suggests status. For instance, higher executives normally use top floors of office buildings. Further, research shows that men over six feet tall are more likely to be hired than those shorter than them but with the same qualifications. Taller men also receive greater incomes, possibly as much as $1,300 a year more than that only one inch shorter than them. However, as a tall and muscular football player points out, a disadvantage to being tall is that some individuals may perceive you as threatening or even dumb (Locker, 2003)." Critique: This summary is too long. Instead of focusing on the main points, it includes all of the details that are in the original passage.

📌 Example — Summary C (Most Effective): "Though height may connote slowness to some people, in the business world, it is almost universally associated with success. For example, taller men are more likely to be hired and to have greater salaries. Further, those in top positions within a company are more likely to work on the top floors of office buildings (Locker, 2003)." Critique: This summary is the most effective. In addition to including all of the main points, it leaves out the unimportant details.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A summary must use reported speech, be shorter than the original, and contain only the main ideas without personal opinions or outside information. In contrast, a paraphrase restates ideas in different words without shortening them, and an interpretative critique evaluates the text by introducing external information. When writing summaries, always begin with proper citation and a clear thesis statement that captures the author's central theme and position. Cover all major supporting ideas while omitting specific illustrations and detailed explanations, and use your own words with smooth transitions. The seven-step process — reading, segmenting, writing one-sentence summaries, formulating a thesis, drafting, editing, and finalizing — ensures a balanced summary that is neither too brief nor too detailed.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three essential characteristics that define a summary, and how do they differ from those of a paraphrase?
2. In the genre information table, which two genres allow information from outside the original text, and which genre requires reported speech?
3. What are the two components of an effective thesis statement in a summary, and where should this statement be placed?
4. According to the seven steps for writing a summary, what should you do after writing a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought, and what typically does not constitute a segment of thought in news magazine articles?
5. Why was Summary A ("Throughout the world, being tall will lead to professional success...") considered too brief in the example, and what specific error did it make regarding the original text's meaning?

📘 Lecture 29 — Punctuation

📖 Overview: This lecture explains the essential punctuation marks used in English writing, comparing them to traffic signs that guide the reader. It covers the correct usage of periods, commas, semicolons, colons, and other marks, providing numerous examples to improve clarity and flow in journalistic and academic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers the most commonly used punctuation marks in English: Period (.), Question Mark (?), Comma (,), Exclamation Point (!), Semicolon (;), Quotation Mark (“), Colon (:), Parenthesis ( ), Apostrophe (’), and Dash (-). Each punctuation mark is explained with its specific functions, rules for usage, and illustrative examples. The lecture emphasizes that punctuation is crucial for improving the flow and understanding of writing.

📝 Lecture Summary

Punctuation

Punctuation in English writing is like traffic lights and traffic signs. It helps the reader understand what you are writing. The punctuation marks used most commonly in English are:

• Period (.) Question Mark (?)
• Comma (,) Exclamation point (!)
• Semicolon (;) Quotation mark (“)
• Colon (:) Parenthesis ( )
• Apostrophe (‘) Dash (-)

THE PERIOD:

The period is a red light or stop sign. Use a period to end a sentence.

• Example: Bill asked whether our class will be cancelled tomorrow. Use a period to improve the flow of writing. Sometimes, there are too many ideas packed into one sentence. Use periods and shorter sentences to improve the flow and understanding.

1. Original: For temperatures above 1100K, the four fuels had about the same ignition delay when the ignition delay was defined as the time to recover the pressure loss from fuel evaporation, in spite of the large variations in ignition delay among the four fuels at lower temperatures.
2. Improved: Ignition delay is the time required to recover the pressure loss from fuel evaporation. Despite the large variations in ignition delay at lower temperatures, the four fuels had about the same ignition delay for temperatures above 1100K.

Use a period in conventional abbreviations.

• Abbreviations: Mr. (mister); Dr. (doctor); Mrs. (misses); Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy); e.g. (exempli gratia); etc. (et cetera); i.e. (id est); p.s. (post scriptum) Sometimes the period is omitted in an abbreviation using capital letters: AM, PM, BA, MA. Do not use a period in abbreviating names of organizations: UN, IBM, USA, FAO, WHO, ILO.

THE COMMA:

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) when it is used to join independent clauses.

• Example: She looks very young, but she is already in her 30's. If the two independent clauses are short and not likely to be misread, no comma is needed.
• Example: The plane took off and we were on our way.

Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.

• Example: When Sam looked in the path near the school building, he found his lost book.

Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase that describes the noun or pronoun that follows.

• Example: Struggling with large amounts of homework, the class feared the exam.
• Example: Having seen pictures of the beach, the children eagerly looked forward to summer.

Use a comma in a semi-parenthetical clause.

• Example: Bill, the tall one, is here.
• Example: Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan, was a lawyer by profession.

Use a comma between all items in a series.

• Example: I brought my books, papers, and computer to the classroom.
• Example: We will prepare the specimens, conduct the tests, and record the data.

Use a comma between multiple adjectives.

• Example: Same has become a strong, confident, independent man.
• Example: The laboratory is a small, windowless, poorly lighted room. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives.
• Example: Three large gray trucks tooled down the street.

Use a comma in a dialogue, with dates, and with titles.

• Example: She said, “Hello.”
• Example: December 25, 2006
• Example: Joe Smith, Ph.D.
• Example: Dear Aroma,
• Example: Yours truly,
• Example: Smith, Joe

Use comma to set off numbers.

• Example: The total price is Rs 23,456.

Use commas to set off contrasting elements. Sharp contrasts begin with words such as not, never, and unlike.

• Example: Unlike Robert, Viola loved speech contests.
• Example: We use alcohol, never water, to sterilize the instruments.

Use commas to set off transitional expressions (however, therefore, moreover, for example, as a matter of fact, in other words).

• Example: As a matter of fact, many of the musicians have hearing problems.
• Example: Therefore, they frequently need hearing assistance.
• 🔑 Transitional expressions rule: If a transitional expression is between independent clauses, precede it with a semicolon (;) and follow it with a comma.
• Example: Natural foods are not always salt free; for example, celery contains more salt than most people would imagine.

Use commas to set off direct address, question tags, and interjections.

• Example: Forgive us, Professor, for being late in sending our homework.
• Example: Yes, but don’t do it again.
• Example: This is the third time you have been late, isn’t it?
• Example: Well, we sometimes have lots of other homework to do.

Use commas to avoid confusion.

• Example: To err is human; to forgive, divine.

THE SEMICOLON (;)

A semicolon is stronger than a comma.

• Example: Peace is difficult; war is hell. 🔑 Definition — Semicolon for connecting clauses: Use a semicolon to connect two independent clauses that are closely related in thought without a coordinating conjunction.

• Example: Grandma stays up too late; she’s afraid she’s going to miss something.

• Example: He was tired; therefore, he quit.

Use semi-colons to connect information groups in a sentence.

• Example: The committee included Dr Val, Professor of Linguistics, from Nottingham; Virginia Villa, Professor of English, from Manchester; Paul Anderson, Director of Rad-Tech, from Reading; and Joan Leach, Professor of Nursing, from Edinburgh.

THE COLON (:)

Use a colon to introduce a series.

• Example: He has three things: money, brains, charm. Use a colon to separate sub-titles/sub-heads.
• Example: The book: How To Read It.
• Example: Punctuation: the colon Use a colon to set off a clause.
• Example: The rule is this: Keep it simple. Use a colon for letter salutations, times, and ratios.
• Example: Dear Sir:
• Example: 7:45 A.M.
• Example: Mix it 3:1

THE APOSTROPHE (‘)

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive.

• Example: Bill’s bike. Use an apostrophe for contractions.
• Example: Isn’t Use an apostrophe for plurals of symbols.
• Example: 1960’s, two A’s

THE QUESTION MARK (?)

Place a question mark at the end of a question.

• Example: Who is he? Use a question mark to express doubt.
• Example: He weighs 250 (?) pounds.

THE EXCLAMATION MARKS (!)

Use an exclamation mark to show strong emotions.

• Example: Aroma is the best!
• Example: Wow!

THE QUOTATION MARK (“)

Use quotation marks for a direct quote.

• Example: He said, “Hello.” Use quotation marks for titles.
• Example: He read, “King Lear.” Use quotation marks for special words or slang.
• Example: He is “nuts.”

THE PARENTHESIS ( )

Use parentheses for supplementary material.

• Example: The map (see illustration) is good. Parentheses are stronger than commas for parenthetical material.
• Example: Joe (the bad boy) is dead. Use parentheses to enclose numbers in a list.
• Example: Her car is (1) a Ford, (2) too slow.

THE DASH

Use a dash to show duration.

• Example: 1947-2007, Lahore-Pakistan Use a dash for parenthetical material.
• Example: The girl—the pretty one—is here. Use a dash to show omissions.
• Example: She called him a ---.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Punctuation marks are the traffic signals of writing, guiding the reader through sentences and preventing confusion. The period (.) ends a sentence and improves readability when used to break up long, complex sentences. The comma (,) has numerous uses, including joining independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, separating items in a series, and setting off introductory phrases and transitional expressions. The semicolon (;) is stronger than a comma and is used to connect closely related independent clauses without a conjunction. The colon (:) introduces a series or clarifies a preceding clause. It is critical to remember the specific rules for each mark, such as using a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses, but omitting it for short clauses.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. When should you use a period instead of a comma in a long sentence?
2. What is the rule for using a comma with a coordinating conjunction like "but" between two independent clauses?
3. Give an example of when you should use a comma after an introductory clause.
4. How do you use a semicolon and a comma with a transitional expression like "for example" when it appears between two independent clauses?
5. What is the difference between using a comma and using a dash for setting off parenthetical material?

📘 Lecture 30 — Abbreviations, Mechanics

📖 Overview: This lecture covers the mechanics of journalistic writing, focusing on the correct usage of abbreviations, numbers, italics, spelling, hyphens, and capital letters. Mastering these conventions ensures clarity, professionalism, and adherence to standard journalistic style, which is crucial for effective communication.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture addresses the proper use of abbreviations for titles, organizations, and Latin terms; figures for numbers and dates; italics for titles and foreign words; spelling rules and commonly confused words; hyphen usage for compound modifiers; and capitalization of proper nouns, titles, and sentence beginnings. It emphasizes consistency and reader comprehension.

📝 Lecture Summary

ABBREVIATIONS

Use standard abbreviations for titles immediately before and after proper names. Examples include "Mr.", "Ms.", "Dr.", "Rev.", and "Prof." before names, and "Sr.", "Jr.", "Ph.D.", "M.D." after names. Avoid using abbreviations like "prof." in general text (e.g., "My history prof...").

🔑 Definition — Standard Abbreviations: Abbreviations used with proper names according to convention. 📌 Example: "Mr. Rafael Zabala" (title before name) vs. "William Albert, Sr." (title after name).

Use abbreviations only when you are sure your readers will understand them, such as CIA, FBI, AFL-CIO, NAACP.

Use B.C., A.D., A.M., No., and $ only with specific dates, times, numbers, and amounts. 📌 Example: "40 B.C. (or B.C.E)", "4:00 A.M. (or am)", "No. 12 (or no. 12)", "$ 150". 💡 Why this matters: Avoid vague abbreviations like "A.M." for "morning" in general text.

Be sparing in your use of Latin abbreviations. 🔑 Definition — Latin Abbreviations: e.g. (exempli gratia, "for example"), i.e. (id est, "that is"), et al. (et alii, "and others"), etc. (et cetera, "and so forth").

Avoid inappropriate abbreviations for personal names, units of measurement, days, holidays, months, courses of study, divisions of works, states, and business parts. 📌 Example: Write "Charles" not "Chase"; "pound" not "lb."; "Monday" not "Mon."; "Christmas" not "Xmas".

NUMBERS

Spell out numbers of one or two words or those that begin a sentence. Use figures for numbers that require more than two words to spell out. 📌 Example: "Now, some 8 (eight) years later..."; "I counted one hundred seventy six (176) CD’s".

Generally, figures are acceptable for: dates (May 20, 2007), addresses (20 The Mall Road), percentages (55 percent), fractions/decimals (½, 0.047), scores (7 to 3), statistics (average age 37), exact money ($150), divisions of books (volume 3, chapter 4, page 189), and time of day (4:00 P.M.).

ITALICS (UNDERLINING)

Underline or italicize the titles of works according to convention: books (The Great Gatsby), magazines (Time), newspapers (the St. Louis Post-Dispatch), pamphlets (Common Sense), long poems (Paradise Lost), plays (King Lear), films (Casablanca), television programs (Friends), and radio programs (All Things Considered).

Underline or italicize the names of spacecraft, aircraft, ships, and trains. 📌 Example: "The success of the Soviets Sputnik galvanized the U.S. space program."

Underline or italicize foreign words used in an English sentence. 📌 Example: "I decided to establish my own modus operandi."

Underline or italicize words mentioned as words, letters mentioned as letters, and numbers mentioned as numbers. 📌 Example: "her probably stuck in our minds."; "she was unable to pronounce J."

Avoid excessive underlining or italics for emphasis.

SPELLING

Become familiar with your dictionary's conventions (e.g., n. for noun, v. for verb, adj. for adjective).

Discriminate between words that sound alike but have different meanings, such as affect/effect, its/it's, loose/lose, principal/principle, their/they're/there, who's/whose, and your/you're.

Become familiar with major spelling rules:

• i before e (relieve, believe) except after c (receive, deceive) or in exceptions (seize, weird).
• Drop final silent e when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel (desire, desiring); keep it if the suffix begins with a consonant (achieve, achievement).
• Change final -y to -ie when adding -s or -d if preceded by a consonant (comedy, comedies); keep it if preceded by a vowel (monkey, monkeys).
• Double a final consonant if preceded by a single vowel and ends a one-syllable word or stressed syllable (bet, betting).
• Add -es to singular nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x.

American vs. British spelling differences: canceled/cancelled, color/colour, judgment/judgement, realize/realise, defense/defence, theater/theatre.

THE HYPHEN

Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word (e.g., notebook vs. cross-examine).

Use a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an adjective before a noun. 📌 Example: "newspaper-wrapped fish"; "well-known candidate". 📌 Example (different when used after a noun): "Priscilla Hood will be well-known."

Hyphenate the written form of fractions and compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine. 📌 Example: "One-fourth of my income..."

If a word must be divided at the end of a line, divide it correctly (e.g., recog- / -nize).

CAPITAL LETTERS

Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them; do not capitalize common nouns.

Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone. 📌 Example: "Professor Margaret Barnes"; "District Attorney Marshal was reprimanded...". 📌 Example: "The district attorney was elected..."

Capitalize the first, last, and all major words in titles and subtitles of works. 📌 Example: "The Impossible Theater: A Manifesto"; "The F Plan Diet".

Capitalize the first word of a sentence and the first word of a quoted sentence (but not a quoted phrase). 📌 Example: "Robert Hughes writes, 'There are only about sixty...'" 📌 Example: "sports are 'the opiate of the masses.'"

Do not capitalize the first word after a colon unless it begins an independent clause (optional). 📌 Example: "two groups: the occasional..."; "we are forced to conclude: The (or the) federal government..."

Capitalize abbreviations for departments, agencies, organizations, and corporations, and call letters of radio/TV stations. 📌 Example: EPA, FBI, OPEC, IBM, WCRB.

⭐ Key Takeaways

For journalistic writing, you must consistently apply standard conventions for abbreviations, numbers, italics, spelling, hyphens, and capitalization. Proper use of titles before and after names, Latin abbreviations, and figures for dates/numbers ensures clarity. Remember to spell out numbers of one or two words, hyphenate compound adjectives before nouns, and capitalize proper nouns and titles when used with names. Mastering these mechanical rules is essential for professional and error-free writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. Should you use "lb." or "pound" in a journalistic article about weight?
2. When should you spell out a number instead of using a figure?
3. Give an example of when a hyphen is needed in a compound adjective before a noun.
4. What is the capitalization rule for a title like "Professor" when used alone in a sentence?
5. What is the difference between "it's" and "its" as taught in the spelling section?

📘 Lecture 31 — Types of Reading: Reading Skills for Writers

📖 Overview: This lecture covers essential reading skills for writers, focusing on academic reading strategies, educated reading styles, purpose reading techniques, and active reading methods. It explains how to extract information efficiently from texts and introduces the SQ3R method for improved comprehension and retention, which is critical for journalistic and academic writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers Academic Reading with a step-by-step approach and example passage, Educated Reading including skimming, scanning, and detailed reading, Purpose Reading with specific steps and an exercise, and Active Reading with techniques like underlining, note-taking, questioning, summarizing, and the SQ3R method (Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review).

📝 Lecture Summary

1. ACADEMIC READING

Academic reading requires a structured approach to extract information efficiently.

Step 1: Read the questions carefully and underline the key words. Step 2: Read the topic, then read the first and last sentences of every paragraph in the passage. Also read bold types inside paragraphs (bold, italic, underlined, bracketed, hyphenated words or information). Read any graphic representation like pictures, graphs, charts, tables, etc. Step 3: Now start answering the questions.

🔑 Definition — Academic Reading: A structured approach to reading that involves previewing questions, scanning paragraph boundaries and formatting cues before answering.

📌 Example — "Hidden History: the beetle's secret cycle of life": A passage about the death-watch beetle describes its habitat in decaying hardwoods (oak and willow most common in Britain), its lifecycle (adults emerge in spring, lay ~50 eggs, live 8-10 weeks; eggs hatch in 2-5 weeks; larvae take 2-10 years to develop; pupation in late summer to early autumn). Sample questions test: (1) subject of passage, (2) which paragraph covers larvae, (3) which covers adults, (4) which covers habitat, (5) fill-in-the-blanks about beetle biology.

2. EDUCATED READING

Three major reading styles are identified for different purposes.

Skimming — for getting the gist of something: Reading quickly to get the main points while skipping details. Used for previewing a passage before detailed reading, refreshing understanding after reading, or deciding if a book is useful.

Scanning — for a specific focus: Moving eyes quickly over a page to find particular words or phrases. Used for looking up names in phone books, checking introductions/prefaces, first/last paragraphs of chapters, or concluding chapters.

Detailed reading — for extracting information accurately: Reading every word and working to learn from the text. Helpful to skim first for a general idea, then go back to read in detail, using a dictionary for full understanding.

🔑 Definition — Skimming: A rapid reading technique to get the main points and overall gist of a text while skipping details. 🔑 Definition — Scanning: A rapid reading technique to locate specific words, phrases, or information within a text. 🔑 Definition — Detailed Reading: A careful, word-by-word reading technique for accurate information extraction and learning.

3. PURPOSE READING

Purpose reading involves interactive engagement with different text types.

Things you read: A reading piece, a notebook, or a dictionary.

STEPS:

• Read a selected paragraph twice.
• Underline the key words and read their meanings from your dictionary.
• Read it once more.
• Decide about the text pattern.
• Find out the topic sentence, supportive details, and the conclusion.
• Underline the signal words.
• Find out the collocations.
• See the structural choices.
• Check literal and figurative use.
• Check any idiomatic entry.
• Note these down and revise them daily.
• Rewrite the paragraph in your own words.

📌 Exercise: Apply the above steps to the provided excerpt from Mother by Maxim Gorky, which describes factory workers emerging into a grim, industrial morning atmosphere filled with mud, machinery noises, and smoky chimneys.

🔑 Definition — Purpose Reading: An analytical reading approach where the reader actively studies text patterns, vocabulary, structure, and meaning to deepen understanding and improve writing skills.

4. ACTIVE READING

Active reading requires being actively involved with the text rather than passively reading, and always making notes to maintain concentration and understanding.

Underlining and highlighting: Pick out the most important parts. Use different colors for different aspects if you're a visual learner.

Note key words: Record main headings as you read, using one or two keywords per point. Keep a folder of notes when you don't want to mark the text.

Questions: Before reading, note down questions you want the material to answer. While reading, note down questions the author raises.

Summaries: After each section, (1) put what you've read into your own words; (2) skim through the text to check accuracy and fill in gaps.

💡 Why this matters: Active reading transforms passive consumption into engaged learning, which is essential for writers who need to extract, analyze, and synthesize information from multiple sources efficiently.

The SQ3R Technique

SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall, and Review — a systematic method for speeding up active reading and learning.

Survey: Gather information to focus and set goals. Read the title, introduction/summary, boldface headings, maps/graphs/charts, and reading aids (italics, boldface, end-of-chapter questions).

Question: Help your mind engage by turning boldface headings into questions you think the section should answer.

Read: Read the first section with your questions in mind, looking for answers and making up new questions if necessary.

Recall: After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from memory. If not, look back at the text. Repeat as needed.

Review: Once the whole chapter is finished, go back over all questions from all headings. Check if you can still answer them; if not, look back and refresh your memory.

🔑 Definition — SQ3R: A five-step active reading method (Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review) designed to improve comprehension, concentration, and long-term retention of material.

📐 Formula: SQ3R = Survey + Question + Read + Recall + Review → Improved comprehension and retention

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture emphasizes that effective reading for writers requires active, strategic approaches rather than passive consumption. The three primary reading styles — skimming, scanning, and detailed reading — serve different purposes and should be used flexibly depending on the task and text. Academic reading demands a structured, question-driven approach that begins with previewing questions and key structural elements before deep engagement. The SQ3R method provides a powerful framework for systematic learning, combining survey, questioning, reading, recall, and review to maximize retention. Ultimately, active reading techniques like note-taking, summarizing, and self-questioning transform reading from a passive activity into an active tool for learning and writing improvement.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three steps of the academic reading process described in the lecture?
2. How does skimming differ from scanning in terms of purpose and technique?
3. List all 10 steps in the purpose reading process after reading a paragraph twice.
4. What does SQ3R stand for, and what is the purpose of the "Question" step in this technique?
5. According to the lecture, why should you pause and write summaries after reading a section of text during active reading?

📘 Lecture 32 — The Language of Newspapers I

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the language and technical vocabulary used in newspaper design and journalism. It explains the layout, typical features, and key terms that describe how information is presented on a newspaper page, as well as the main sections that make up a standard newspaper. Understanding this vocabulary is essential for any aspiring journalist or media professional.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture is divided into two main sections. The first section defines 20 technical terms related to newspaper layout and features, including components like the masthead, headline, by-line, caption, and splash. The second section lists and describes the 11 standard parts of a newspaper, such as the headline, editorial, sports page, and classified ads.

📝 Lecture Summary

Layout, typical features and technical terms

This section defines key vocabulary for describing the physical and design elements found on a newspaper page, especially the front page. These terms are the building blocks for discussing newspaper production and design.

🔑 Definition — Box-out: A small part of the page shaded in a different colour. 🔑 Definition — By-line: The name of the reporter, often included at the beginning of a feature if the reporter is important. 🔑 Definition — Caption: Typed text under photographs explaining the image. 🔑 Definition — Credits: The author of a feature may be given credit in the form of a byline. Photographs may have the name of the person who took them or the agency that supplied them alongside. 🔑 Definition — Crosshead: A subheading that appears in the body of the text and is centred above the column of text. If it is set to one side, it is called a side-head. 🔑 Definition — Exclusive: This means that newspaper, and no one else, solely covers the story. The paper will pay their interviewees, buying the story so it cannot be used by another paper. 🔑 Definition — Feature: Not necessarily a ‘news’ item (current affairs), but usually with a human-interest angle presented as a spread. 🔑 Definition — Headline: The main statement, usually in the largest and boldest font, describing the main story. A banner headline spans the full width of the page. 🔑 Definition — Kicker: A story designed to stand out from the rest of the page by the use of a different font (typeface) and layout. 🔑 Definition — Lead Story: The main story on the front page, usually a splash. 🔑 Definition — Lure: A word or phrase directing the reader to look inside the paper at a particular story or feature. 🔑 Definition — Masthead: The title block or logo identifying the newspaper at the top of the front-page. Sometimes an emblem or a motto is also placed within the masthead. The masthead is often set into a block of black or red print or boxed with a border. ‘Red-tops’ (The Sun, The Mirror, The News of the World) are categorised by style and the use of a red background in the masthead. 🔑 Definition — Menu: The list of contents inside the paper. 🔑 Definition — Pugs: These are at the top left and right-hand corners of the paper and are known as the ‘ears’ of the page. The prices of the paper, the logo or a promotion are positioned there. They are well placed to catch the reader’s eye. 🔑 Definition — Secondary Lead: Usually only a picture and headline, it gives a sneak preview of a story that you might find inside the paper. 🔑 Definition — Sidebar: A main feature has an additional box or tinted panel alongside it. 🔑 Definition — Splash: The main story on the front of the paper. The largest headline will accompany this, along with a photograph. 🔑 Definition — Spread: A story that covers more than one page. 🔑 Definition — Stand first: An introductory paragraph before the start of the feature. Sometimes it may be in bold. 🔑 Definition — Strap line: An introductory headline below the headline. 🔑 Definition — Tag: A word or phrase used to engage a reader’s interest in a story by categorising it, e.g. ‘Exclusive’, ‘Sensational’.

💡 Why this matters: Mastering this vocabulary allows you to precisely describe, critique, and design newspaper pages. Terms like "splash," "masthead," and "crosshead" are the standard language of the newsroom.

PARTS OF A NEWSPAPER

This section lists the standard, recurring sections that make up the content of a typical newspaper, from the front page to the classified ads.

1. Headline – the most important news and latest developments are featured here.
2. Local and foreign news – news of lesser importance.
3. Editorial – article written by the editor expressing opinion about the latest developments or news of national interest.
4. Feature stories – special stories about different fields of interest.
5. Articles of opinion or commentaries and views – articles expressing the views and comments of writers or notable personalities.
6. Obituary – listing of persons who recently died, or of death anniversaries.
7. Fun page – includes puzzles and comic strips for entertainment.
8. TV and movie guide – a listing of movies currently showing or about to be shown and movie reviews.
9. Sports page – articles written about the latest news and developments in sports.
10. Society page – articles about the latest parties, weddings, birthdays, and other happenings in society.
11. Classified Ads – list of things for sale or for rent, employments, business opportunities, etc.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must be able to define and differentiate between all the technical layout terms, such as the masthead (title block), headline (main statement), splash (main story), and pugs (top corners). It is critical to understand the function of elements like the by-line, caption, and crosshead. The difference between a feature story and straight news should be clear, as should the purpose of editorial content. Finally, knowing the 11 standard parts of a newspaper (e.g., editorial, sports page, classified ads) provides a complete framework for understanding newspaper structure.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between a "splash" and a "secondary lead"?
2. Define the term "masthead" and explain what "Red-tops" are.
3. List three technical terms used to describe headlines or introductory text (e.g., headline itself, strap line, stand first).
4. What is the purpose of an "exclusive" story, and how does a newspaper ensure it remains exclusive?
5. Name four of the standard sections found inside a newspaper, beyond the front-page news.

📘 Lecture 33 — The Language of the Newspapers II

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the two primary categories of newspapers—tabloids and broadsheets—detailing their physical formats, historical origins, and distinct editorial approaches. It emphasizes how differences in size, language, picture use, and editorial policy shape the presentation of news and appeal to different readerships, culminating in a practical language analysis of two news reports covering the same story.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining broadsheet and tabloid newspaper formats, including their typical dimensions and historical development. It then lists examples of each type and explains how editorial policy, language (subjective vs. objective), and picture usage differ between the two. The final, detailed section analyzes the language of a broadsheet and a tabloid report on the same event, comparing headlines, modifiers, naming, and sentence structure to illustrate their contrasting styles.

📝 Lecture Summary

BROADSHEET NEWSPAPER

A broadsheet is the largest newspaper format, characterized by long vertical pages (typically 22 inches or more). The term derives from types of popular prints sold on the streets. The first broadsheet newspaper was the Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c., published in 1618. Many broadsheets measure roughly 29½ by 23½ inches per full spread.

There are two versions: the full broadsheet (folded vertically in half to form four pages called a spread) and the half broadsheet (an inside page not folded vertically, just front and back). Broadsheets are typically also folded horizontally in half for newsstand display space. The most important stories are placed "above the (horizontal) fold." Historically, broadsheets developed when a tax was placed on British newspapers based on the number of pages in 1712.

TABLOID NEWSPAPER

A tabloid is a smaller newspaper format per spread, or a newspaper that tends to emphasize sensational crime stories and gossip. The tabloid format is roughly 23½ by 14¾ inches per spread, the smaller of the two standard newspaper sizes. A third major format is the Berliner, sized between tabloid and broadsheet.

Examples of Newspapers

Broadsheet Newspapers: The Guardian, The Independent, The Telegraph, The Times, The Financial Times. Tabloid Newspapers: The Express, The Mail, The Sun, The Mirror, The Star.

Editorial Policy

Tabloids and broadsheets do not look different by accident; each is trying to appeal to its specific readership. Tabloid stories are generally shorter, while broadsheet stories are more in-depth. The editor and sub-editors ensure that only stories suiting the paper's editorial policy and style are published.

Editorial Choice

The amount of 'hard news' is determined by editorial policy. Tabloids feature political stories but tend to focus on politicians' personalities rather than issues. Broadshseets usually have a closer correlation with TV news, often sharing the same lead story and the order of news importance.

One picture is worth a thousand words...

Tabloids generally make far greater use of pictures than broadsheets, often dedicating 25% of their total area to photos versus 10% in broadsheets. Tabloids use pictures to liven up sensational stories, while broadsheets also use photographs in striking ways but are less likely to cover celebrity scandal.

Language

This is the most difficult area to define. Tabloids often use subjective language (allowing personal opinion to dominate), while broadsheets tend to use objective language (dealing with facts in a detached manner). Tabloids commonly use emotive language (designed to stir up emotions) and may pass off opinion as fact. Weighing the balance between subjective and objective language is a useful way to analyze a newspaper's approach.

Recap

You should now feel confident explaining: the differences between tabloid and broadsheet newspapers (size, style, and content); how editorial policy affects newspapers; the use of language and pictures; and how both types cover the same story differently.

Example Language Analysis

This section analyzes two news articles (Paper 1: broadsheet, Paper 2: tabloid) covering the same basic facts about a child locked out in the cold.

Headlines: The broadsheet uses a straightforward, factual headline: “Girl frozen alive on her own doorstep.” The prepositional phrase highlights the location (home), making the story more interesting. It is less dominant and does not use capitalization, in line with its house style. The tabloid aims to attract attention with a capitalized headline and underlined sub-headline: “ICE BLICK KID” (a noun phrase with a compound modifier) and “Karlee, 2, survives six hours locked out of home at -22°C” (a complex sentence using present tense for immediacy). The colloquial noun "Kid" and specific details are used to arouse emotion.

Modifiers: The broadsheet uses precise modifiers: serious condition, six hours, extensive frostbite. The tabloid uses emotive noun phrases: low body temperature, severe frostbite.

Naming: The broadsheet uses the formal “Mrs Karrie Kasalofski” for the parents and “a two-year-old girl” for the child. The tabloid uses informal “Mum Karrie” and “Dad Robert” and informal words like kid, toddler, and tiny for the child to show vulnerability and sensationalize.

Other Features: Both papers use adverbials for time and place, marked themes to dramatize the narrative, and the passive voice to suggest no one is to blame. Direct speech from doctors adds authority and a personal feeling. Action stories have a chronological structure.

⭐ Key Takeaways

For the exam, you must remember that newspapers are primarily divided into broadsheets (larger format, more in-depth, objective language) and tabloids (smaller format, shorter stories, subjective/emotive language). Editorial policy dictates a paper's style, content, and target readership. Tabloids use more and different types of pictures (sensational) compared to broadsheets (more factual). The language analysis shows that broadsheets use formal naming and precise modifiers, while tabloids use colloquial names and emotive language to create drama and appeal to emotion. The same story can be presented very differently through choices in headlines, naming, and sentence structure.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two main categories of newspapers, and how do they differ in size?
2. How does editorial policy affect the choice of news stories in a tabloid versus a broadsheet?
3. Explain the difference between subjective and objective language, giving an example of each from the lecture's analysis.
4. According to the lecture, approximately what percentage of a tabloid's paper area is given to pictures, compared to a broadsheet?
5. In the language analysis, how did the broadsheet and tabloid differ in their naming of the child and her parents?

📘 Lecture 34 — News Writing and Style I

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the essential elements that define newspaper style and the criteria used to determine what constitutes news. It emphasizes the importance of accuracy, brevity, and clarity in journalistic writing, providing a foundational framework for effective news reporting.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers six key aspects to look for in a newspaper: register, lexis, grammar, metaphorical language, sources, and typographical features. It then explains seven main factors that help determine if an event is news: impact, proximity, timeliness, prominence, novelty, conflict, and audience. The lecture concludes with the ABC of news writing: accuracy, brevity, and clarity, ending with a quote from John Updike on the power of effective storytelling.

📝 Lecture Summary

What to Look for in a Newspaper

The lecture begins by outlining six critical features to analyze in a newspaper. First, register refers to the level of formality and specialized language used. Second, lexis concerns the specific vocabulary choices made by journalists. Third, grammar involves the sentence structures and grammatical patterns typical of news writing. Fourth, metaphorical language examines how figurative expressions are used to create vivid imagery. Fifth, sources identifies who is quoted and how information is attributed. Sixth, typographical features looks at layout, headlines, fonts, and visual elements that guide reader attention.

Newspaper Style: Practice

News professionals agree on at least seven main factors that help them determine if an event is news:

a) Impact — how many people does the event affect? How seriously does it affect them? b) Proximity — an event will be more important if it is closer to the readers. An earthquake in a far-off land is not as interesting as one that is close to home. c) Timeliness — is the event fresh? Is it new? The news must be timely to be of use to readers. d) Prominence — Names make news, and big names make big news. Ordinary people are intrigued by the doings of the rich and famous. e) Novelty — this is the new in news, the unusual. The "firsts," "lasts" and "only" have been the staples of the news business for many years. f) Conflict — Conflict has been the currency of great literature, drama and movies for all time. From the stories of Shakespeare to those of Disney, conflict has played a crucial role. Newspapers are no different. g) Audience — who is the audience? The answer to that question helps determine whether an event is news at all, and if it is, where it will be played in the paper.

💡 Why this matters: These seven factors serve as a practical checklist for journalists to quickly evaluate whether a potential story is newsworthy and how prominently it should be featured.

The ABC of News Writing

The lecture presents the ABC of news writing as fundamental principles:

• Accuracy: Ensuring all facts, names, quotes, and figures are correct and verifiable.
• Brevity: No wordy expressions. Include only relevant statements. Avoid unnecessary repetition.
• Clarity: Choose short, familiar but standard words. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs. Achieve appropriate readability. Include sources both official and unofficial to authenticate your evidence, if possible.

🔑 Definition — Accuracy: The journalistic principle requiring all information to be factually correct, including names, dates, quotes, and statistics.

🔑 Definition — Brevity: The journalistic principle of writing concisely by eliminating wordy expressions, irrelevant statements, and unnecessary repetition.

🔑 Definition — Clarity: The journalistic principle of using short, familiar words and constructing effective sentences and paragraphs to ensure the audience can easily understand the content.

Quote on Storytelling

The lecture concludes with a quote from John Updike: "I want stories to startle and engage me within the first few sentences, and in their middle to widen or deepen or sharpen my knowledge of human activity, and to end by giving me a sensation of completed statement."

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that newsworthiness is determined by seven core factors: impact, proximity, timeliness, prominence, novelty, conflict, and audience. The ABC of news writing—accuracy, brevity, and clarity—forms the foundation of all professional journalistic work. Brevity requires eliminating wordy expressions and irrelevant statements while avoiding unnecessary repetition. Clarity demands short, familiar words and effective sentence construction, always supported by credible sources. Finally, effective news storytelling should engage readers from the first sentence, deepen their understanding in the middle, and provide a sense of completion at the end.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the seven factors that help determine if an event is news?
2. According to the lecture, why is proximity important in determining newsworthiness?
3. What does the "B" in the ABC of news writing stand for, and what specific practices does it require?
4. How does the lecture define "clarity" in news writing?
5. Why should journalists include both official and unofficial sources according to the ABC principles?

📘 Lecture 35 — News Writing II

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on the core principles of journalistic writing, emphasizing accuracy, clarity, and style. It provides detailed guidelines for crafting effective leads, structuring stories, and using quotes properly, which are essential skills for any journalist aiming to produce clear and engaging news content.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by outlining the three fundamental pillars of reporting: accuracy, clarity, and style. It then introduces the "first five paragraphs" concept, detailing the four key elements of news, impact, context, and emotion. Neil Hopp's "First Five" formula for the inverted pyramid structure is presented, followed by a deep dive into common problems and qualities of effective leads. The SVO<24 rule is explained, and ten specific guidelines for clearer writing are provided. Finally, the lecture covers the proper use of quotes and discusses two distinct approaches to story organization: planning versus plunging.

📝 Lecture Summary

Reporting boils down to three things:

The lecture begins by asserting that good reporting rests on three essential pillars: accuracy, clarity, and style.

• Accuracy: As a reporter, you have significant power to influence decisions and public opinion. This power comes with the responsibility to avoid distorting the truth or damaging your newspaper's credibility. Getting a fact wrong, misspelling a name, or omitting vital information can misinform the public.
• Clarity: Newspaper writing is not academic writing. Readers are pressed for time, so you must deliver news quickly and concisely. You must ask: "What is the news here? Why should my readers care?" The goal is to write short sentences, short paragraphs, and use simple language. A helpful technique is to read your story aloud to spot awkward phrasing.
• Style: Good news writers are artists who can entertain, inspire, and educate. While the inverted pyramid format is still useful for breaking news, writers should look for opportunities to use more interesting formats. However, the primary objective is always to tell people what they need to know.

☝️💡 Why this matters: These three pillars are the foundation of all ethical and effective journalism. Mastering them ensures your reporting is trustworthy, understandable, and engaging.

First five paragraphs

All work is futile if the story does not engage the reader immediately. Writing coaches have identified four key elements that should be present in the first five paragraphs of any news story.

• News: The newest information, including the basic facts of who, what, when, where, why, and how.
• Impact: What a situation means and who is affected. It tells readers what the news changes about their lives and what they should do.
• Context: The general perspective that frames the background of the news. It helps readers understand whether something is normal or surprising.
• Emotion: The human dimension that takes a story from abstract to reality. It offers personal elements to help readers understand the story.

Neil Hopp's "First Five" formula (Inverted Pyramid Structure of News)

Hopp's formula provides a specific structure for the first five paragraphs of a news story.

1. Effective lead – focused, short, and memorable.
2. A second paragraph that amplifies the lead.
3. A third paragraph that continues to build detail.
4. Nut graph – provides context or tells the reader why this is important.
5. Power quote – an interesting quote that propels meaning, not just a fluffy quote.

Leads

Before writing, you must know the point of the story and why it is important. The lecture lists common problems in leads, including being cluttered (more than one idea), flabby (saying "I don't know what this story is about"), dull (no energy), mechanical (no human voice), closed (using jargon), and predictable (full of clichés).

The lecture also outlines the qualities of effective leads:

• Focus: Make a specific promise to the reader and deliver on it.
• Context: Involve the reader by showing clear, immediate significance.
• Form: Implies a design, plan, or structure to help the reader understand the meaning.
• Information: Whet the readers' appetite and promise delivery.
• Voice: A human voice talking to the reader.
• Surprise: The promise of something new.

SVO<24

This concept stands for Subject-Verb-Object sentences of generally less than 24 words. Good writing starts with this simple construction, which is also called the right-branching sentence. The S-V-O is the engine of the sentence; delaying meaning with extra words is like a long train that is difficult to follow. Research shows that 20-word sentences are clear to most readers, while 30-word sentences are not. A simple test: if you can't read a sentence aloud without taking a breath, it's too long.

🔑 Definition — Right-branching sentence: A sentence structure where the subject, verb, and object appear first, followed by any modifiers, rather than being interrupted. It delays meaning less. Example: "The dog chased the ball across the field." (S-V-O) is better than "The dog, with great enthusiasm and speed, chased the ball across the field."

📝 Helpful analogy: Think of S-V-O as the engine of a train. You don't want a long, sprawling train that's hard to follow. Keep it short and direct.

TEN GUIDELINES TO CLEARER WRITING

The lecture provides ten specific, practical guidelines for achieving clarity.

1. One idea per sentence.
   • No: "Columbine High School... experienced the largest of recent high school murder rampages... and DeKalb schools... are reacting to a rumor of violence..."
   • Yes: "School officials and police are reacting quickly to a rumored threat of violence at DeKalb High School. The response follows last week's high school massacre in Littleton, Colo."
2. Limit sentence length to 23-25 words. Use the "breath test" as a guide.
3. S-V-O (Subject-Verb-Object). Don't delay meaning with many commas.
   • No: "Mauger, who worked as a bursar at DePaul University... prior to working at Beloit, said she missed the university environment."
   • Yes: "Mauger was a bursar at Chicago's DePaul University before her Beloit job. She missed the university environment."
4. Use strong verbs and an active voice.
   • No: "The poem will be read by La Tourette."
   • Yes: "La Tourette will read the poem."
5. Reduce difficult words to their simplest terms. Don't let bureaucrats dictate your word choices.
6. Don't back into a sentence. Place the main point at the beginning.
   • No: "The end of the academic year and the end of the legislative session were two reasons Dr Val cited."
   • Yes: "Dr Val cited two reasons: the end of the academic year and the end of the legislative session."
7. Don't use more than three numbers in any one sentence.
   • No: "Wednesday, the NIU baseball team's winless streak hit 22 as NIU (4-37-1) dropped a twin bill to Miami (21-18-1), 8-2 and 10-5, at Oxford, Ohio."
   • Yes: "Oxford, Ohio — NIU's baseball losing streak reached 22 as the Huskies dropped a doubleheader Wednesday to Miami, 8-2 and 10-5."
8. Use no more than three prepositional phrases per sentence.
   • No: "Students who will be graduating from NIU will be honored at a senior luncheon from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. Friday in the Regency Room of the Holmes Student Center."
   • Yes: "Friday's senior luncheon will honor students about to graduate. The event runs from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. in the Holmes Student Center's Regency Room."
9. Choose the precise word.
   • No: "This will increase the number of participants from 55 students a week to 200 students a week, and in that extra 145 students the age for attendance also will change. The present center is only equipped to handle children ages 2-6, but the new center will have the capacity to serve infants, too." (2 sentences, 53 words)
   • Yes: "This will increase the center's weekly capacity, from 55 children to 200. And, while the current center takes children ages 2-6, the new center will take infants, too." (2 sentences, 28 words)
10. KISS (Keep it simple, stupid).
    • No: "Biological sciences professor Karl Johnson passed away Tuesday at the age of 55, following a long, courageous battle with cancer."
    • Yes: "Biology professor Karl Johnson died of cancer Tuesday. He was 55."

Using quotes

The best quotes are short and bright; they surprise, shock, amuse, reveal insights, or prove points. Don't quote simple statements of fact. The lecture lists "sins" to avoid when quoting people:

• Stutter quotes: Saying the same thing twice. For example, "Mayor Bessie Chronopoulous said Tuesday she will seek a second term. 'I intend to run for a second term.'"
• Partial quotes: Often, it's less awkward to paraphrase. Weak: "Smith said the money was 'spent by me' in order to buy 'better-looking plants for the office.'" Better: "Smith said he spent the money on better-looking plants for the office."
• Parenthetical info in quotes: Avoid inserting information inside a quote. Weak: " 'We can't get (the concrete barrier) to stay in one place because (La Tourette) keeps driving into it,' Smith said." Better: Paraphrase first, then use the clean quote.
• Junk quotes: Vague, bureaucratic quotes that say nothing.
• Stacking quotes: Just stringing a bunch of quotes together rather than constructing a story.
• Weak lead quotes: Empty, boring, vague, or repetitive quotes.
• Weak end quotes: Using any old quote just to finish off the story.

STORY ORGANIZATION

The lecture concludes by asking if you are a planner or a plunger.

• Planners execute four or five elements in advance. They are better on more-complicated, non-deadline stories.
• Plungers start tight in and discover what they want to say in the process, but they tend to write long and then cut back. They are slower and may give editors grey hair. Plungers are better on breaking, deadline stories.
• Being a plunger requires a good memory and the ability to formulate in your head. Being a planner requires marking up notes. Both ways can and do work, but writers need to understand which one they are.

⭐ Key Takeaways

For the exam, a student must remember that effective news writing rests on the three pillars of accuracy, clarity, and style. The first five paragraphs of a story must include the elements of news, impact, context, and emotion to immediately engage the reader. Leads should be focused, provide context, and avoid common problems like being cluttered or dull. Sentence structure should follow the SVO<24 rule (Subject-Verb-Object, under 24 words) using an active voice, and quotes must be short, bright, and avoid sins like stutter quotes or junk quotes. Finally, understanding your personal approach to story organization—whether you are a planner or a plunger—is crucial for efficiency and quality.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three fundamental pillars of reporting as outlined in this lecture?
2. Name the four key elements that should be present in the first five paragraphs of a news story.
3. What does the formula "SVO<24" mean, and why is it important for journalistic writing?
4. List at least three "sins" to avoid when using quotes in a news story.
5. What is the key difference between a "planner" and a "plunger" in story organization, and when is each approach more suitable?

📘 Lecture 36 — EDITORIAL WRITING

📖 Overview: This lecture defines editorials as opinionated articles representing a newspaper's stance on issues, designed to influence public opinion and promote critical thinking. It explains the role of the editorial board, the purposes editorials serve, the qualities of effective editorials, and the step-by-step process for writing and structuring them, including key do's and don'ts.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining what an editorial is and its role on the editorial page, including the masthead. It then details the various functions of an editorial, such as criticizing, defending, endorsing, and entertaining. The qualities of a good editorial are listed, followed by a comprehensive writing process. Finally, the lecture provides a structure for editorials and a detailed list of do's and don'ts for effective editorial writing.

📝 Lecture Summary

WHAT SHOULD AN EDITORIAL DO?

An editorial can serve several purposes. It can criticize or attack, but criticism must offer suggestions for change, and an attack must be faultless. It can defend an individual or institution under attack. Endorsements of candidates or issues require solid reasons. Editorials can compliment when deserved, providing evidence. They can instigate, advocate or appeal by starting a crusade or encouraging action like donating. They can entertain while making a worthwhile point, and predict future outcomes, supported by facts.

Most editorial pieces take the form of an essay or thesis, using arguments to promote a point of view. An average editorial is 750 words or less, but this length can vary.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD EDITORIAL:

1. Clarity: Precise conveyance of ideas
2. Colour: Using words that evoke images
3. Concreteness: Being specific
4. Economy: Making every word count
5. Tone: The general impression of the writing
6. Tempo: The pace (how the writing moves - fluency)
7. Variety: Varying word choice, sentences, length, and sentence structure

WRITING AN EDITORIAL:

The writing process involves six steps:

1. Invention: Choose an issue. The editorial could be about the environment, an endangered species, or any idea.
2. Collection: Gather support. Collect facts, written statements from experts, comparisons, and pictures to strengthen your argument. Be able to counter-argue your opponents.
3. Organization: Structure the editorial to stretch from a straightforward opening to a closing.
4. Drafting: Write the first draft. The body should have clear and accurate details. Give strong arguments at the beginning and end. Show the opposing arguments and their weaknesses. Offer a solution at the end. Do not be wishy washy.
5. Revising: Get it right. The editorial should be clear and forceful. Avoid attacking others and do not preach.
6. Proofreading: Check the language, content, format, and mechanics.

STRUCTURING AN EDITORIAL:

An effective formula for editorial writing is SPECS:

• State the problem or situation
• Position on the problem
• Evidence to support the position
• Conclusions: Who’s affected and how; state and refute the position of the other side
• Solutions to the problem: At least two.

Whatever type of editorial you write, it must have a/an:

• Introduction: To get the reader’s attention
• Body: To persuade the reader
• Conclusion: To prompt the reader into action

DO’S AND DON’TS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

Do’s:

• Change abstractions into living examples
• Highlight emotional hooks; a warm positive tone is essential
• Soften criticism; never divide your readership
• Speak as the voice of the whole community
• Tie the editorial to a news item or current issue of public concern
• Show a local flavour
• Beware legal challenges over reputations
• Avoid a preachy tone and rhetorical flourishes
• Convert statistics into fractions 📐 Formula: statistics → fractions: Making numbers more relatable to readers by using visual or simple comparisons instead of raw data.
• Simplify grammar and vocabulary
• Limit questions to a minimum; your task is to offer answers
• Clarify your point of view before beginning; state a headline
• Establish your authority and credibility
• Focus on three points only
• Avoid language knots (e.g., "in which," "through which")
• Avoid lists (e.g., "First, second...")
• Avoid cross-references (e.g., "as was said above")
• Avoid dialogue
• Avoid "I, you, me" pronouns; use a plural voice representing the community

Don’ts:

• Use the singular pronoun "I"
• Include falsehoods, suppositions, or exaggerations
• Include libel and defamation
• Advocate anything illegal
• Use long paragraphs
• Use subheadings
• Use difficult, technical words
• Use grammatical knots or confused writing
• Use questions to finish
• Forget to devise and include a headline
• Ignore the obvious
• Use vague ambiguous references (e.g., the unattached "It")

⭐ Key Takeaways

An editorial is an opinionated news story representing the newspaper's stance, not the reporter's, and is written by the editorial board without a byline. It must be built on a logical framework (SPECS) and serve a clear purpose, such as criticizing with solutions, defending, endorsing, or entertaining. The writing process requires gathering solid evidence, offering a solution, and sticking to an argument without being "wishy washy." Effective editorials prioritize clarity, concreteness, and economy, speaking as a unified community voice while avoiding preachy tones, personal pronouns, and vague language.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the primary difference between an editorial and a regular news story?
2. What does the acronym SPECS stand for in editorial writing?
3. Name three main purposes an editorial can serve, according to the lecture.
4. Why are editorials typically written without a byline?
5. What are the seven qualities of a good editorial listed in the lecture?

📘 Lecture 37 — WRITING FEATURES

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the art of feature writing, distinguishing it from hard news by its depth, creativity, and focus on storytelling. It covers how to generate story ideas, structure a feature through 'story mapping', craft compelling leads, and navigate the revision and editing process, emphasizing the feature writer's role as a narrator who must remain objective.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture defines what a feature story is and lists its various types, such as human interest and personality profiles. It details a systematic process for generating feature ideas and using "story mapping" to narrow a broad topic into a focused, manageable angle. The lecture then provides guidance on writing effective feature leads using different techniques like questions, quotations, and anecdotes, before concluding with a critical discussion on the revision and editing process, including how to handle editorial feedback.

📝 Lecture Summary

WHAT’S A FEATURE? THE BASIC SCOOP:

A news feature goes way deeper than headlines by thoroughly exploring an issue. Writing one requires significant research and interviewing, creating something worthwhile through honest work.

TYPES OF FEATURES:

Features can be categorized into several types, including human interest features, news features, personality profiles, personal experience narratives, how-to-stories, historical features, and brites.

🔑 Definition — Brites: A short, amusing, and often quirky news item that is usually a lighthearted or offbeat story.

📌 Example: A story about a man, Joe Carle, who accidentally placed a loaded semiautomatic handgun in his oven, forgot it was there, and then turned the oven on. The gun fired bullets into the kitchen walls. No one was hurt, and the reason for putting the gun in the oven was unknown.

WHAT TO FEATURE IN A FEATURE?

Features can run up to 10,000 words, but typical Youth Press Project (YPP) features are 1000-1500 words. It's crucial to have a clear idea of what you are writing about and a specific angle before you start.

GENERATING FEATURE STORY IDEAS

Ideas can come from various sources, such as: 1) your own experience, 2) your community, 3) reading papers and listening to newscasts, 4) clip saving, 5) fact files on who, what, where, 6) history, 7) hobbies, 8) dreams, and 9) the "how and why" behind a news event.

Story mapping is a technique to focus a feature and avoid wasting time on unusable research. For example, a general idea about "raves" can be broken down into sub-topics like drugs, trends, and music. Each sub-topic is then brainstormed further. For "drugs," you might explore physical effects, peer pressure, prices, or the potential for dying. For "trends," you examine what's cool, the future of the scene, or how trends relate to drug use. This process helps you decide on a main angle and makes the story straightforward to research and write.

Once focused, you become an expert by hustling for facts: researching online, setting up interviews with DJs and ravers, visiting stores for prices, and taking detailed notes. The key is to keep your focus and avoid being distracted by extra information.

IT’S TIME TO WRITE!

Features are the "crown jewel" of news stories, allowing for colourful language and creative freedom, unlike hard news which sticks to just the facts. The goal is to put the reader inside the scene, triggering all five senses. A feature story can be thought of as a series of mental images presented to create a montage.

Your role as a feature writer is that of a narrator, assembling information like a jigsaw puzzle. It is critical to remember that your opinions shouldn't enter a feature story. You must fairly represent different people and let the reader draw their own conclusions.

FEATURE LEADS:

Feature leads don't need to summarize the whole piece. Several effective types include:

1. Question Lead: Asks a direct question to engage the reader (e.g., "Is it better to buy new or used textbooks?")
2. Direct Address: Speaks directly to the reader using "you" (e.g., "Tired of smoky cafes…? Then try the newest single scene: cyberspace.")
3. Quotations: Opens with a powerful quote from a person in the story. 📌 Example: "At the end it was Cassie who told her mother not to cry. 'I had started to cry,' Angela said, 'and Cassie looked at me and said, "Don't cry, Mother, even when I die, don't cry," and then she went quietly to sleep.'"
4. Anecdotes: Begins with a short, interesting story to illustrate the topic. 📌 Example: A story about a student who thought "hospice" was "where they kill people."
5. Allusion: Makes a clever reference to a known phrase or idea. 📌 Example: "At the Berks County jail, crime doesn’t pay. The inmates do: $10 a day for room and board – no credit cards accepted."
6. Contrast: Presents a sharp contrast between appearance and reality. 📌 Example: A man described as a beloved husband and neighbour who was also a burglar.
7. Descriptive Leads: Paints a vivid picture of a scene using sensory details. 📌 Example: "Every day the factory whistle bellowed forth its shrill, roaring, trembling noises into the smoke-begrimed and greasy atmosphere..."

REVISION AND EDITING

Always reread your work. Strategies include reading it out loud, pretending to be a critical editor or a targeted reader, and letting the piece sit for a couple of days. Consider printing it out, as things read differently on paper. Editing, and cutting in particular, almost always has to happen.

To handle editing, you must cultivate a thick skin and discipline yourself to hear criticism without taking it as a personal attack. As the author, you are responsible for keeping the heart of your story intact. A helpful hint is to show your piece to a friend, as they will see things you can't.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A feature story is defined by its depth, requiring significant research to explore an issue beyond the headlines. The key to a successful feature is focus, achieved through the technique of story mapping, which breaks a broad idea into manageable sub-topics and a specific angle. While features allow for creativity and descriptive language, the writer's primary role is that of a neutral narrator who avoids inserting their own opinions. Finally, the writing process is not complete without ruthless revision and editing, a stage that demands professional detachment from one's own words.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the seven different types of features mentioned in the lecture?
2. What is "story mapping" and why is it an important step before researching a feature?
3. Besides facts, what specific element must a feature writer strictly keep out of their story?
4. List four different types of leads a writer can use for a feature, and give a brief example for one of them.
5. According to the lecture, what is one key attitude a writer must cultivate to successfully deal with an editor's revisions and cuts?

📘 Lecture 38 — WRITING COLUMNS

📖 Overview: This lecture defines the opinion column, differentiates it from news reports and editorials, and provides a practical guide to writing and marketing columns. It covers essential elements like purpose, audience, structure, and style, along with specific tools and techniques for beginning columnists.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining a column and its two main types: opinion columns and editorials. It then explains the critical differences between a column and a news report, and between a column and an editorial. A detailed section on "How to Write a Column" covers purpose, audience, content, and structure. The lecture provides a list of do's and don'ts, identifies necessary skills for a good columnist, and introduces several "tools for beginning" such as epigraphs, concessions, and narratives. It concludes with advice on what a column should do, how it should be written, tips on column writing, and a ten-step guide to becoming a columnist, including a sample column.

📝 Lecture Summary

What is a column?

A column is a regular, opinion-based piece of writing that appears in a publication (weekly, monthly, or bi-monthly) and focuses on a particular topic. It is consistent in tone and voice. A column is the “personality of journalism,” reflecting the writer’s heart, outrage, or observations on everyday life. Its goal can be to inform, persuade, or entertain. A successful column is a regular feature, is personality-driven by the author, and explicitly contains an opinion or point of view.

Column and a news report:

The main difference between a column and a news report is that opinion columns are subjective rather than objective. A news report lists facts, such as a politician's mistakes, but does not argue for resignation. An opinion column, however, expresses an opinion and makes an argument, trying to persuade the reader. The reader imagines the writer is engaged in a debate.

Column and an editorial:

Personal columns differ from editorials because an editorial represents the voice, policy, and ideology of the newspaper, while a column represents the viewpoint of the columnist alone. The columnist's view can clash with the newspaper’s stance. The columnist is solely responsible for their words, whereas the whole newspaper is responsible for editorials.

🔑 Definition — Editorial: An editorial is the voice, policy, and ideology of the newspaper as a whole. 🔑 Definition — Personal Column: A personal column is the viewpoint of the individual columnist, for which they alone are responsible.

HOW TO WRITE A COLUMN?

Before writing a column, think about purpose, audience, content, and structure.

• Purpose: Why are you writing? To inform, entertain, educate, or seek identity/exposure?
• Audience: Whom are you trying to reach? Write in their language, at their level, about what they need to know.
• Content: What will the column discuss? It must be based on facts and accurate. Names are crucial. Columns are regular, personality-driven, and contain an explicit opinion.
• Structure: How will the message reach the audience? Other types of columns include "question and answer," "new ideas," "how-to-do-it," or "calendars." Personal columns often use "departments" like "coming events" to help structure the piece. They also use words like "I," "we," or "you."

DO’S AND DON’TS OF COLUMN WRITING:

Do: Give timely, helpful information; develop and keep a structure; write simple, short sentences and paragraphs; use local names and places; let others speak for you through quotes; learn the difference between a column and a news story. Don’t: Use technical or complex words; use jargon; talk about one topic constantly; include too much detail; refer to yourself in the third person or quote yourself.

Skills to be a good Columnist:

A good columnist needs thinking ability, strong observation skills, avid reading, and the ability to use narration and humor (satire, parody, irony, lampoon).

Tools for Beginning:

Several tools can be used to open a column effectively:

• Epigraph/quotation: Start with a quote to build a thesis statement. 📌 Example: “Jon Peters, President of Marine land Park, argues that, `captivity for the whales is the best thing for them...'"
• Concession: Acknowledge part of an opponent's argument to find common ground and establish ethical appeal. 📌 Example: "I think you're quite right; gun control legislation...needs to be tightened... However, I don't think your proposal goes far enough."
• Narrative / hypothetical example: Use a personal story or a "what if" scenario to help the reader visualize the topic. 📌 Example: "When I was seven years old, I remember being at the Marine land park...wondering how such a big whale could be happy in such a small pool."
• Question or a set of questions: Orient the reader and outline the issues to be discussed. 📌 Example: “What is the average life span of a whale in captivity compared to a whale in the wild?"
• Striking fact or statistic: Cite a startling statistic from a reliable authority. 📌 Example: "According to a 1999 Statistics Canada poll, 93% of Canadians would support legislation to ban assault weapons."
• Paradox: Begin with a statement that seems absurd but may be true. 📌 Example: "Parents must be cruel to be kind."
• Background information: Introduce relevant, focused background that leans toward your position. 📌 Example: Provide background on the Water world Marine Park, highlighting its shortcomings.
• Analogy: Draw a striking comparison between something common and something unfamiliar. 📌 Example: "A habitat at Marine land Water Park is a cell not unlike what you'd find at the Kingston Penitentiary..."
• Definition (not from a dictionary): Use an authoritative definition to clarify a term or angle within your topic's context. 📌 Example: When arguing about physical discipline, cite the Criminal Code of Canada's definition of "child abuse" and "corporal punishment."
• Humor: Use a humorous example or anecdote, but only if it is funny and appropriate.

💡 Why this matters: These opening tools are critical for hooking the reader and setting the tone for the entire column.

What should a column do?

A column should highlight creative expression of opinion, reflect the author's personality, showcase superior writing ability and a distinctive style, and express the viewpoint of one writer. It should build on careful reporting, focus on subjects that appeal to many readers, present new insights in a lively manner, and stimulate readers to think, evaluate, and act. It must have an original title and appear regularly on the same page.

HOW SHOULD A COLUMN BE WRITTEN?

• A simple way is to follow the pattern of an editorial.
• A better way is to make the viewpoint come alive by showing rather than telling, using colourful nouns and action verbs.
• The issue, not the writer, should be the focal point.
• The message dictates the form of the writing.
• First person is permissible but should be used in a subdued manner.
• A column can use creative styles like narrative story, fictional dialogue, or witty comment.
• A column contains a consistent tone, such as thoughtful (stimulating), analytical (serious), conversational, confidential, reportorial, critical, or satirical.

TIPS ON COLUMN WRITING

• Write the way you talk, but don't discard good English usage and grammar.
• Uncover a "lead" or opening that catches the reader's interest.
• Use a variety of material, not just one subject.
• Write about people and keep heavy subject matter to a minimum.
• Write simply, avoiding technical words, long sentences, and long paragraphs.
• Don't weigh the column down with too much detail.
• Jot down ideas and names in a note pad while visiting farms and homes.
• Be timely and point out the significance of local conditions.
• Give readers information that will benefit them.
• Always get the column to the editor on schedule.

BECOMING A COLUMNIST:

The lecture outlines a 10-step process for becoming a columnist:

1. Understand the genre: Columns run between 350 and 1,000 words, are tight, light, and bright, with a predictable subject area but unpredictable content.
2. Learn from the masters: Follow three to five established columnists to learn their techniques, organizational styles, and voice.
3. Determine your goals: Understand how a column can support your long-term efforts and further your goals.
4. Question yourself: Honestly assess if you have the time and commitment to produce a column over time.
5. Serve others: Identify ways to be of service to your readers by providing information, insight, or entertainment.
6. Attract the right reader: Pinpoint key characteristics of your target audience to “talk your reader’s talk.”
7. Play with format: Experiment with different formats to find one that works for your audience and message.
8. Develop your prototypes: Write five to seven sample columns to refine your style and create a representative sample for marketing.
9. Choose your marketing approach: Distribute through syndicates (companies that take a cut) or self-syndicate by going directly to outlets or launching an e-mail newsletter or website.
10. Be patient: Columns take time to develop; they deepen and improve with time and patience.

🔑 Definition — Syndicates: Companies that serve as your sales, marketing, and PR team for distributing a column, taking a cut of the proceeds. 🔑 Definition — Self-Syndication: Going directly to individual newspapers, magazines, or websites to market and distribute your column yourself.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The defining characteristic of a column is that it is subjective, personality-driven, and expresses the viewpoint of one writer, which fundamentally separates it from an objective news report and a newspaper's institutional editorial. Before writing, a columnist must strategically decide on purpose, audience, content, and structure, while using a variety of creative tools like epigraphs, narratives, and analogies to engage the reader. Successful columns are built on careful reporting, a consistent voice, and a clear, simple style that uses local names and places. To become a columnist, one must understand the genre, learn from masters, develop prototypes, and choose a marketing approach, keeping in mind that building a loyal readership requires patience and consistent service to the audience.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three key criteria that differentiate a column from other forms of journalism?
2. How does a personal column differ from an editorial?
3. Name four tools a columnist can use to begin a column and briefly explain the purpose of one of them.
4. According to the lecture's advice on "do's and don'ts," what should a columnist avoid doing regarding their use of personal references?
5. What are the two main marketing approaches for a columnist to distribute their work, and what is the fundamental difference between them?

📘 Lecture 39 — WRITING ARTICLES FOR NEWSPAPERS

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the fundamentals of writing analytical articles, or op-ed pieces, for newspapers. It details the key structural components of an article—from the heading and lead to body paragraphs and conclusion—and provides practical tips for crafting clear, engaging, and informative pieces aimed at a wide readership.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with a general definition and guidelines for writing articles, followed by a step-by-step breakdown of the essential components: how to write the heading, the lead, the conclusion at the top, and the body paragraphs. Each section includes definitions, general guidelines, and specific writing tips.

📝 Lecture Summary

1. How to Write an Article.

The lecture defines an article as a piece of writing that investigates an interesting topic in a clear, expository style. The writer’s goal is to analyze an issue by collecting claims, evidence, and assumptions, then interpreting the strengths and weaknesses of all sides. General guidelines include thinking about a topic, doing research for interesting facts, and writing down thoughts.

🔑 Definition — Article: A piece of writing that investigates an interesting topic, written in a clear, expository style, and interesting to a wide range of readers.

💡 Why this matters: The article format is a powerful tool for influencing public opinion, making it essential to understand its structure and purpose.

2. How to Write an Article. The Heading

The heading is described as a summary of the article itself. The general guideline is to summarize the entire article in three to four words. A workable heading can be written first and changed later. Tips state that headings for news articles should be informative, while those for amusing articles can be intriguing. Headings should be short and avoid unfamiliar words or terminology.

🔑 Definition — Heading: A summary of your article.

3. How to Write an Article. The Lead

The lead is defined as the element that identifies a narrow topic. It summarizes the topic while signaling to the reader that some conflict exists, thereby giving the reader motivation to continue reading. The guideline is to stay with three sentences in a lead; for short articles, it can be one sentence long. For informative headings, leads can be informative or motivating; for motivating headings, leads must be informative so the reader understands what is happening.

🔑 Definition — Lead: Identifies narrow topics and gives the reader motivation to read the article.

4. How to Write an Article. The Conclusion at the Top

For informative articles, a conclusion placed at the top is essential. It provides the reader with all necessary information about the problem the writing addresses. The key guideline is to tell the reader that facts, reasoning, and investigation have yielded a result that affects them. The tip is to eliminate unimportant information, long sentences, unfamiliar words, and anything that turns a short summary into a long story.

🔑 Definition — Conclusion at the top: Especially essential for informative articles; it gives the reader all necessary information about a problem.

5. How to Write an Article. Body Paragraphs and Headings

These requisites explain the writer’s findings and allow them to make a case. Body paragraphs are called expository because they explain facts, events, or certain points. They begin with topic sentences that signal a new thought, with subsequent sentences supporting the topic with reasonable data. Expository paragraphs in articles usually have four to five sentences. The writing should start with the most interesting information first, and end with less formal language and a clever statement. A key tip explains that starting with the best information prevents loss if an editor must cut the last paragraphs for space. The writer should not write another conclusion, as one is already at the top.

🔑 Definition — Expository Paragraphs: Body paragraphs that explain facts and events, or certain points to the readers. 🔑 Definition — Topic Sentence: The first sentence of an expository paragraph that signals the beginning of a new thought.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember that an article is an analytical essay, not just a news report, and it follows a specific structure. The heading must be a short summary (3-4 words), while the lead (2-3 sentences) identifies the topic and creates conflict to hook the reader. Crucially, the conclusion is placed at the top of the article, giving the reader the result immediately. Body paragraphs are expository, beginning with topic sentences and supporting data, and should start with the most interesting information. Finally, an article ends with a clever statement, not a restatement of the conclusion.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the differences in writing a heading for a news article versus an amusing article?
2. Why is the conclusion placed at the top of an article, instead of at the end?
3. What is the purpose of a lead, and why is it important to signal conflict to the reader?
4. What are “expository paragraphs,” and what is the recommended structure (including length) for one in an article?
5. According to the lecture, why should a writer start with the most interesting information first in their body paragraphs?

📘 Lecture 40 — WRITING ANALYSIS

📖 Overview: This lecture discusses the structure and components of an opinion article or analytical essay, focusing on how writers build arguments using evidence and assumptions. It is crucial for students to understand how to analyze these elements, including logical fallacies, to write critically and evaluate journalistic pieces effectively.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by outlining the common sections of an opinion article, such as summaries, claims, and analyses of assumptions, hidden arguments, contradictions, and audience. It then details three types of claims: factual, value, and policy. Finally, it categorizes evidence into rational, emotional, and ethical appeals and lists common logical fallacies found in arguments.

📝 Lecture Summary

WRITING ANALYSIS

An opinion article focuses primarily on the writer's use of evidence and assumptions to support his/her claim or argument. However, opinion article will on occasion include a discussion of the hidden arguments and the inherent contradictions in an argument, if the reader finds that those elements are important to the argument as a whole. Often an article (or analytical essay) has the following "sections," not always in this exact order, though this is a common order of elements:

1. a summary of the original pieces – an abstract usually – is a common way to start. It includes: • purpose: What is the author's reason for writing? What is the author's main idea? • scope: What is the author's focus in this piece? Where does the author concentrate his/her attention? • method: What kinds of evidence does the author provide? How does the author try to convince the reader of the validity of his/her main idea? • results: What are the consequences of the problem or issue that the author is discussing? • recommendations: What solutions does the author present to the reader to resolve the problem or issue in the piece? Does the author recommend action or change in his/her piece? • conclusions: Does the author describe a ‘cause and effect' relationship or explain the origins of this issue or problem? What conclusions does the author draw from his/her study of the issue or problem?
2. Your claim (Your reaction/response to the situation). There are three types of claims:
   • Faucal claims: those that can be verified through experimentation, observation, or reason. 🔑 Definition — Faucal claims: claims verifiable through experimentation, observation, or reason. 📌 Example: "The current temperature is above 0° Fahrenheit."
   • Value claims: those that express a writer's value system — what the writer believes is good or bad, right or wrong. 🔑 Definition — Value claims: claims that express a writer's beliefs about good/bad or right/wrong. 📌 Example: "Democracy offers the greatest chance for people to realize their full potential."
   • Policy claims: those that seek to change people's attitudes and behaviours toward a particular issue. 🔑 Definition — Policy claims: claims that seek to change attitudes and behaviors on an issue. 📌 Example: "We ought to register and license guns the same way we do automobiles."
3. An analysis of assumptions (You describe and evaluate the warranted and the unwarranted, the explicit and the implicit assumptions.)
4. An analysis of hidden arguments (You describe how the assumptions create another implied argument, the hidden argument.)
5. An analysis of inherent contradictions (If the original authors make statements that contradict your experience of the world or your ideas, explain those differences.)
6. An analysis of intended audience
7. An analysis of evidence – divided into:
   • Rational appeal: facts, case studies, statistics, experiments, logical reasoning, analogies, anecdotes.
   • Emotional appeal: the higher emotions (altruism, love) and the base emotions (greed, lust).
   • Ethical appeal: trustworthiness, credibility, expert testimony, reliable sources, fairness.

Logical Fallacies: The following logical fallacies are seen common in articles. Remember, logical fallacies are ways of arguing that are illogical and meaningless.

1. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY: EXAMPLE: My teacher says she’s voting for the conservative candidate, so I will too.
2. APPEAL TO EMOTION: EXAMPLE: I’m sure someone with your vast experience can see that plan B is better. (Appeal to flattery)
3. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE: EXAMPLE: I’ve never seen an alien, so they must not exist.
4. APPEAL TO POPULAR OPINION: EXAMPLE: Everyone cheats on their income taxes, so it must be all right.
5. COMPOSITION: EXAMPLE: All the parts of the engine were lightweight, so the engine should have been lightweight.
6. CORRELATION IMPLIES CAUSATION: EXAMPLE: There was a full moon the night I had my car accident, so I’m never driving again under a full moon.
7. FALSE CAUSE AND EFFECT: EXAMPLE: Yesterday I ate tuna sandwich and then failed my test. I’m never eating tuna sandwich before a test again.
8. HASTY GENERALIZATIONS: EXAMPLE: I liked the last Chinese restaurant I went to, so I will like every Chinese restaurant in the world.

⭐ Key Takeaways

An opinion article is built on a writer's claim and is structured with a summary, analysis of assumptions, hidden arguments, and evidence. There are three types of claims: factual (verifiable), value (based on beliefs), and policy (seeking change). Evidence must be analyzed for rational, emotional, and ethical appeals. A critical reader must also identify common logical fallacies (e.g., appeal to authority, hasty generalization) to evaluate the validity of an argument.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three types of claims presented in this lecture?
2. What are the six elements typically found in the summary section of an opinion article?
3. Define a logical fallacy and name two examples.
4. What is the difference between rational, emotional, and ethical appeals?
5. Give one example of a policy claim.

📘 Lecture 41 — Guide to Letter-Writing: Letters to Editors

📖 Overview: This lecture provides a comprehensive guide to writing effective letters to editors, a powerful tool for reaching a wide audience and advocating for causes, particularly animal welfare. It covers the purpose, structure, tone, and style of such letters, along with detailed instructions on letter formatting and organization. The lecture emphasizes that a well-crafted letter can be a potent instrument for public persuasion and social change.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by explaining the strategic value of writing to local newspapers to reach thousands of readers, offering tips on finding topics, being brief, and including contact information. It then breaks down four essential aspects of letters: purpose, prompt, tone, and format, followed by a detailed list of core and optional letter parts. The lecture concludes with extensive advice on punctuation, layout, paragraphing, and most importantly, maintaining a constructive tone (avoiding name-calling and using positive language), along with specific tips on style to enhance credibility and persuasiveness.

📝 Lecture Summary

Writing Letters to the Editor

Writing letters to the editors of local newspapers allows you to reach thousands of people, not just one individual. It is an accessible and effective form of advocacy. To find fuel for your letters, read local papers and magazines for articles, ads, or letters on your topic. Letters don't have to be rebuttals; they can be inspired by local events (a circus in town) or seasonal calendar events (Easter bunnies, Mother's Day and factory farms). Be sure to write on good news as well as bad, thanking the paper for positive coverage.

🔑 Definition — Op-Ed Piece: A longer article of about 500–800 words that summarizes an issue, develops an argument, and proposes a solution, sent to the Editorial Page editor.

Key formatting rules include being brief, ideally under 300 words; typing if possible, or printing legibly; using correct grammar and spelling; and always including your name, address, and telephone number for verification. You can also write to television and radio stations to protest or compliment programming.

Four Important Aspects About Letters

The lecture identifies four critical aspects of any letter:

• Purpose: Your reason for writing, the main idea, or the bottom-line.
• Prompt: The supportive details, various aspects of the issue, and your points of discussion.
• Tone: The level of formality, courtesy, and politeness.
• Format: The protocol for the letter and its layout.

Letter Parts

A letter has both core and optional components.

Core Components are essential and include:

1. Sender’s address
2. Date
3. Inside address
4. Salutation
5. Subject line
6. Bottom-line
7. Discussion
8. Windup
9. Closing notation
10. Signed name
11. Typed name
12. Designation

Optional Components can be added as needed:

1. Status
2. Reference line
3. Attention line
4. Typing notation
5. Enclosure
6. Copy notation
7. Post script
8. Page notation

Punctuation, Layout, and Paragraphing

The lecture introduces different styles for letter formatting.

• Punctuation: Can be open punctuation (no punctuation after lines in the address, date, etc.) or closed punctuation (using commas and periods after these lines).
• Layout: Can be full blocked (all text aligned left), blocked (some elements indented), or semi-blocked.
• Paragraphing: Should be point-by-point and follow the principles of organization.

Tone in Letter Writing

Maintaining the correct tone is crucial for credibility.

• No name-calling
• No blames or allegations
• No criticism on people, but their ideas
• Use positive words and be assertive throughout your writing.

Organizing Letters

The lecture provides specific guidelines for organizing the content of a letter.

1. State your purpose first unless you have overriding reasons for not doing so.
2. When a message has more than one purpose, state all purposes at the beginning.
3. State your purpose first, even if you know the editor needs background information before he can fully understand the purpose of your communication.
4. Bottom-line non-sensitive information in order of importance to the editor.
5. Put longer messages to the editor into an attachment.
6. In case of negative situations, consider a circuitous approach (indirect approach).
7. In negative-persuasive situations, use a circuitous pattern for most.

💡 Why this matters: The organizing principle is audience-centered. For straightforward requests, a direct approach works best. For negative or persuasive messages, a more indirect approach is more effective to avoid alienating the reader.

Some Tips on Style

This section offers practical advice to improve the quality and persuasiveness of your letter.

• Increase your credibility by mentioning anything that makes you especially qualified to write on a topic (e.g., "As a nutritionist...").
• Try to tell readers something they're not likely to know and encourage them to take action.
• Keep personal grudges and name-calling out of letters; they'll hurt your credibility.
• Don't give lip service to anti-animal arguments. Speak affirmatively.

📌 Example: Instead of "It's not true vegetarians are weaklings," write "Vegetarians are healthier and slimmer and live years longer than flesh-eaters."

• Avoid self-righteous language and exaggeration. Readers may dismiss arguments if they feel preached to or if the author sounds hysterical.

📌 Example: Instead of "Only a heartless sadist could continue to eat animals...", write "Most compassionate people would stop eating meat if they saw how miserable the animals are."

• Don't assume your audience knows the issues. Provide necessary context.
• Use inclusive language to help your audience identify with you.

📌 Example: Instead of "Eating meat is bad for your health," write "We know eating meat is bad for our health."

• Use positive suggestions rather than negative commands.

📌 Example: Instead of "Don't go to the circus," write "Let's take our families to non-animal circuses."

• Personalize your writing with anecdotes and visual images.

📌 Example: Instead of "Leg hold traps can trap an animal by the face, leg, or stomach," write "Have you ever seen a yearling fox with her face caught in a leg hold trap? I have, which is how I know traps tear into an animal's face, leg, or stomach."

• Avoid speciesist language. Instead of referring to an animal as "it" or "which," use "she" or "he."
• Avoid euphemisms ("negative reinforcement," "culling the herd"); say what you really mean ("painful electric shocks," "slaughtering deer").
• Criticize the cruelty, not the newspaper.

📌 Example: Instead of "There is no excuse for your article promoting the circus," write "There is no excuse for the abuse that goes on in the circus."

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical points for an exam are: the "Four Important Aspects" (Purpose, Prompt, Tone, Format) provide the foundational framework for any letter. Mastering the "Some Tips on Style" is crucial for persuasive writing, especially the principles of speaking affirmatively, avoiding self-righteous language, and criticizing ideas not people. Finally, the core component structure for a letter (from sender’s address to designation) and the concept of a "circuitous approach" for negative-persuasive situations are essential organizing principles.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the primary advantage of writing a letter to the editor instead of a letter to a single person?
2. Name the four important aspects that every letter must consider, according to the lecture.
3. List four of the twelve core components of a letter as presented in the lecture.
4. What does it mean to "speak affirmatively" in a letter, and why is it important?
5. In what type of writing situation should you use a "circuitous approach" for organization?

📘 Lecture 42 — Broadcast and Web News Writing

📖 Overview: This lecture provides a comprehensive guide to writing broadcast news, covering two primary story types: news features and breaking news/daily announcements. It emphasizes the critical rules for conversational, concise, and ethical broadcast writing, and details the specific style requirements for scripts. The lecture concludes with principles for adapting news writing for the web, highlighting the differences between online and print presentation.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by distinguishing between news features (3-7 minute stories) and breaking news/daily announcements (15-second to 1-minute stories). It then presents 16 essential rules for broadcast news writing, covering conversational tone, conciseness, simplicity, research, and avoidance of newspaper-style language. A detailed section on broadcast style covers formatting, capitalization, abbreviations, phonetic spelling, punctuation, and numbers. The lecture concludes with an extensive discussion of broadcast news ethics regarding 13 key issues, followed by guidelines for web news writing that address differences from print, credibility, and user behavior.

📝 Lecture Summary

BROADCAST AND WEB NEWS WRITING

Writing broadcast news is divided into two story types based on presentation time. News Features are stories between 3 and 7 minutes long about past events, typically planned with a storyboard explaining how audio and shots present researched background. Breaking news and daily announcements are stories happening today or in the near future, usually written into a teleprompter and presented in short stories between 15 seconds and 1 minute long. Information sources may be limited, incomplete, or possibly inaccurate, requiring quick verification. A rule-of-thumb is that 65 words equal 30 seconds at a normal speaking pace.

The lecture then provides 16 basic rules for writing broadcast news. These rules emphasize writing conversationally, concisely, and simplifying complicated ideas. Journalists must research and verify all information, avoid newspaper construction, and not scare viewers. Other rules include not giving orders, not burying strong verbs in nouns, avoiding certain story starters, not characterizing the news, and avoiding participle phrases, dependent clauses, and weak verbs in leads. The rules also cover not starting with unknown names, "yesterday" or "continues," and words like "another," "more," or "once again." The section concludes by advising journalists not to lose or fail to reach viewers by maintaining credibility and avoiding factual errors.

🔑 Definition — News Features: Stories between 3 and 7 minutes long about past events, planned on a storyboard. 🔑 Definition — Breaking news and daily announcements: Stories happening today or in the near future, presented in 15-second to 1-minute segments. 📐 Rule-of-Thumb: 65 words = 30 seconds → At a normal speaking pace, 65 words take 30 seconds to read. 📌 Example: "Write as though you were telling your best friend or your Mom or Dad with enthusiasm." 💡 Why this matters: These rules ensure broadcast news is clear, engaging, and trustworthy for a listening audience that only hears information once.

BROADCAST STYLE

This section provides a reference for the actual look of written material in scripts intended for on-air reading. It covers general rules, capitalization, abbreviations, phonetic spelling, punctuation, and numbers.

General Rules: Double space scripts. In the upper left corner of each page, write the reporter's name, a one or two-word slug, date, and page number. Place individual stories on separate pages with "###" marks at the end of each story.

Capitalization: A mixture of upper and lower-case is preferred as lower-case letters have varied shapes that readers more easily pick up. For this class, scripts should be upper and lower-case.

Abbreviations: In general, do not use abbreviations. Exceptions include MR., MRS., MS., DR., ST. LOUIS, ST. PAUL, FT. LAUDERDALE. For well-known organizations like F-B-I, Y-M-C-A, G-O-P, F-C-C, use a hyphen between letters when you want the newscaster to read each letter separately. Abbreviations like NATO and SEATO are pronounced as a single word and do not require hyphens. The abbreviation U-S may be used as an adjective.

Phonetic Spelling: Indicate how hard-to-pronounce words and names are pronounced. Type the phonetic spelling in parenthesis after the name, breaking it down into syllables with hyphens. Use all capital letters in the syllable to be stressed and lower case in the others. Use phonetic spelling every time the word or name is used. The lecture provides a detailed vowel and consonant guide for phonetic spelling.

Punctuation: The rules of punctuation in the English language do not hold for broadcast announcers. Do not use colons, semicolons, or quotation marks. The most common punctuation marks are commas and periods. The dash is used frequently as a substitute, and the hyphen indicates when letters are to be read as such. When using direct quotes, tell the audience using phrases like "WE QUOTE HIS EXACT WORDS" or "HE SAID-AND WE QUOTE-."

Numbers: Avoid using lists of numbers and round off large numbers. Use figures, except for "one" and "eleven" which should be written out. For numbers over 999, use a combination of spelling and figures. Always write out a number if it begins a sentence and always spell out fractions. Don’t use PM or AM; use "THIS MORNING," "THIS AFTERNOON," "TONIGHT." When using addresses, dates, and ordinals, use figures, and add st, nd, rd, th. Use "17-CENTS A POUND" instead of "PER."

📌 Example (Abbreviations): "HE WORKS FOR THE U-S INFORMATION AGENCY" (as adjective) vs. "BOLIVIA WANTS HELP FROM THE UNITED STATES" (as noun). 📌 Example (Numbers): "THERE ARE 11-HUNDRED STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SCHOOL" and "TWENTY-FIVE PERSONS ATTENDED THE MEETING."

BROADCAST NEWS ETHICS

This section presents 13 legal/ethical concerns for news organizations to develop policies on. These include: advance examination of broadcasts by outsiders, coverage of civil disturbances and the media's potential role in intensifying them, allowing employees in commercial messages, interviewing accident victims and their relatives, limitations on interviews requested by interviewees, use of "reaction shots" and "reverse question shots," accepting outside-produced broadcasts, use of simulated or non-synchronous sound, staging events, accepting gifts or favors, employee outside activity on controversial issues, use of computer simulation of news, and procedures for reporting plane crashes.

💡 Why this matters: These ethical guidelines are crucial for maintaining journalistic integrity, credibility, and public trust. They help journalists navigate complex situations where professional duties may conflict with legal, personal, or commercial interests.

WEB NEWS WRITING

This section covers the differences between paper and online presentation. On the web, documents should be split into multiple hyperlinked pages as users are not willing to read long pages. Make every page independent since users can enter at any page. Link to background or explanatory information. The word count for online versions should be about half of print, as users read 25% slower from screens and find it painful to read too much text. Put the most important information at the top to avoid scrolling. Write in a "news you can use" style since web users are impatient and critical. Credibility is vital; avoid exaggerated claims and link to supporting sources. Use an informal writing style with humor, but avoid clever headings, metaphors, convoluted sentences, and puns. Add bylines and update pages regularly to reflect changes.

🔑 Definition — "News you can use" style: A writing style allowing users to quickly find the information they want, addressing the impatient and critical nature of web users. 📌 Example: Before a conference, a page might point to a registration form; afterward, point to slides or transcripts. 💡 Why this matters: Effective web news writing respects user behavior, builds trust, and ensures information is accessible and credible in a medium where users control their navigation.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical takeaways from this lecture are the 16 rules for broadcast writing which ensure clarity, engagement, and trustworthiness for a listening audience. The broadcast style guide provides a specific formatting system for scripts, including rules for capitalization, abbreviations, phonetic spelling, punctuation, and numbers. The extensive ethics discussion highlights the importance of establishing policies for coverage of sensitive events, handling interviews, staging, and conflicts of interest to maintain journalistic integrity. Web news writing requires a distinct approach, prioritizing conciseness, credibility, and user-friendly organization to accommodate screen reading and impatient users. Finally, the core difference between broadcast and web writing lies in the medium: broadcast news is heard once and requires conversational clarity, while web news is visually scanned and demands independent, hyperlinked, and frequently updated content.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two main story types in broadcast news writing, and what are their typical lengths?
2. List five of the 16 basic rules for broadcast news writing.
3. How should phonetic spelling for hard-to-pronounce names be formatted in a broadcast script?
4. What are three key differences between writing news for print and for the web?
5. According to the ethics section, what are two potential ethical concerns with using a "reverse question shot" in an interview?

📘 Lecture 43 — Writing Press Release, Reviews and Obituaries

📖 Overview: This lecture provides comprehensive guidance on writing effective press releases, critical reviews, and obituaries in journalistic style. Understanding these formats is essential for public relations professionals and journalists who must communicate news objectively while maintaining credibility and audience engagement.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers three main writing formats: press releases (including structure, tips, and formatting guidelines), reviews (covering definition, planning, writing structure, and specific genre considerations), and obituaries (including standard format and content requirements). It emphasizes the importance of journalistic objectivity and factual accuracy across all three formats.

📝 Lecture Summary

PRESS RELEASE

Guide to Writing Successful Press Releases

Press releases require developing persuasive communication within the framework of a traditional news story format. Editors quickly reject releases that appear promotional; therefore, press release writers must think like reporters and follow journalistic style. The inverted pyramid structure is essential, with the most important information placed first.

The headline should be about ten words or less, capturing the editor's attention while summarizing the information in an exciting, dynamic way. Think of it as a billboard along a highway—you have limited words to make your release stand out.

The opening paragraph (summary lead) is critical and must explain "what, when, where" of the story. This paragraph must summarize the press release and contain the hook—the one thing that gets the audience interested in reading more. The hook must be relevant to both the audience and the news media, serving as a factual statement rather than a hard sell or devious promotion.

The body uses the inverted pyramid strategy, writing the most important information and quotes first. This technique allows editors to cut from the end without losing critical information when fitting space constraints.

The closing paragraph repeats critical contact information (name, phone number, email address) and ends with a company boilerplate—a short paragraph describing the company, products, services, and brief company history.

🔑 Definition — Press Release: A written communication that reports specific information about an event, product, or development to the news media using traditional news story format while maintaining journalistic objectivity.

📌 Example: A company announcing a new product would write: "ABC Corporation Announces Revolutionary Solar Panel Technology" as the headline, followed by a lead paragraph explaining what the product is, when it launches, and where it will be available.

Press Release Tips and Guidelines

Stick to the facts: Tell the truth and avoid fluff, embellishments, and exaggerations. If your release contains 'Buy Me' promotional material, set it aside until you have more exciting news. Journalists are naturally skeptical; if your story sounds too good to be true, you hurt your credibility.

Present news content: Answer all the "W" questions—who, what, where, when, why, and how—to ensure a complete press release.

PR length: Standard press releases are 300 to 800 words, written in a word processing program that checks spelling and grammar.

Headline length: The ideal headline is 80 characters long (maximum 170).

Lead length: The lead sentence contains the most important information in 25 words or less.

Correct grammar usage: Always follow rules of grammar and style. Errors in grammar and style affect credibility and may cause rejection.

Use active, not passive, voice: Verbs in active voice bring your press release to life. Write "partnered" instead of "entered into a partnership." Use strong verbs: "The committee was enraged over the incident" reads better than "The committee exhibited severe hostility over the incident."

Economics of words: Use only enough words to tell your story. Avoid unnecessary adjectives, flowery language, or redundant expressions like "added bonus" or "first time ever." Keep it concise and make each word count.

Beware of jargon: While limited jargon may be needed for search engine optimization, the best way to communicate is using ordinary language. Avoid terms like "capacity planning techniques," "extrapolate," and "prioritized evaluative procedures."

More than one paragraph: It is nearly impossible to tell a story in a few sentences. If you don't have more than a few sentences, chances are you don't have newsworthy material.

Mixed case: NEVER submit a press release in ALL UPPER CASE LETTERS. This is very bad form and will be ignored by journalists. Use mixed case.

Follow a Standard Press Release Format

A standard press release format includes: a headline announcing news in title case (ideally under 80 characters), a summary paragraph (one to four sentences elaborating on the headline using sentence case), the lead sentence containing the most important information in 25 words or less, and the body with short paragraphs (three to four lines each) answering who, what, when, where, why, and how.

The first couple of paragraphs should answer all questions. The release includes quotes from key staff, customers, or subject matter experts. Typical topics include announcements of new products, strategic partnerships, awards, book publications, software releases, or website launches.

The tone must be neutral and objective—not like an advertisement. Avoid directly addressing the consumer or using "I," "we," and "you" outside direct quotations. Do not include an email address in the body. The final paragraph contains the least newsworthy material, including a short corporate backgrounder (boilerplate) before listing the contact person's name and phone number.

📐 Formula: Standard Press Release Layout → [Headline in Title Case Under 80 Characters] → [Summary Paragraph (1-4 sentences)] → [Lead Sentence (25 words or less)] → [Body paragraphs using inverted pyramid] → [Boilerplate] → [Contact Information]

📌 Example: "XYZ Corporation Launches Innovative Water Purification System" "The new system purifies 1000 gallons per hour using solar power..." "New York, NY, January 15, 2024 -- XYZ Corporation today announced..." Contact: Mary Smith, Director of Public Relations, XYZ Company, 555-555-5555

WHAT IS A REVIEW?

A review is a critical evaluation of a text, event, object, or phenomenon. Reviews can consider books, articles, architecture, art, fashion, restaurants, policies, exhibitions, performances, and many other forms.

Above all, a review makes an argument. The most important element is that it is a commentary, not a summary. It allows you to enter into dialogue with the work's creator and other audiences. You can offer agreement or disagreement and identify where the work is exemplary or deficient.

Typically, reviews are brief—in newspapers and academic journals, they rarely exceed 1000 words. While they vary in tone, subject, and style, they share common features:

(Content) First, a review gives a concise summary of the content, including a relevant description of the topic and its overall perspective, argument, or purpose.

(Style) Second, a review offers a brief overview of the style or how things are said in the work.

(Assessment) Third, and more importantly, a review offers a critical assessment of the content. This involves reactions to the work under review: what is noteworthy, whether it was effective or persuasive, and how it enhanced understanding.

(Conclusion) Finally, in addition to analyzing the work, a review often suggests whether or not the audience would appreciate it.

🔑 Definition — Review: A critical evaluation that makes an argument about a text, event, object, or phenomenon, serving as commentary rather than summary, with thesis statement, supporting body paragraphs, and conclusion.

Planning the Review

For writing a book review, collect the following information:

• Bibliographical Data
• Classification
• Author and Author Purpose
• Subject Matter (theme)
• Contents (development of the theme)
• Style (is the style effective in conveying content and pleasing to the reader?)
• View of Life (author's stance: practical or impractical, realistic, idealistic)
• Value and Significance
• Format

Writing the Review

Once observations and assessments are made, survey notes and unify impressions into a statement describing the purpose or thesis of the review. Then outline arguments supporting the thesis.

Introduction includes: the author's name and book title and main theme; relevant details about who the author is and where they stand in the genre; the context of the book and/or your review; the thesis of the book; and your thesis about the book.

Summary of Content should be brief, as analysis takes priority. Summary will be dispersed throughout other parts of the review.

Analysis and Evaluation of the Book should be organized into paragraphs dealing with single aspects of your argument. You don't need to work chronologically; organize by themes, methods, or other elements. Include brief comparisons to other books if useful, and use a few short quotes from the book to illustrate points, giving specific page references in parentheses.

Conclusion should sum up or restate your thesis or make the final judgment regarding the book. Do not introduce new evidence. You can introduce new ideas that go beyond the book if they extend the logic of your thesis. Balance the book's strengths and weaknesses to unify your evaluation.

📌 Example: "To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee" Review by Rodman Philbrick uses Scout's voice to describe the trial of Tom Robinson, Boo Radley's mystery, and Atticus Finch's courage, making the larger theme of racial intolerance feel real and engaging.

Reviewing Specific Types of Books

Different book types raise special considerations:

Biography/Autobiography: Does the book give a full-length picture? What phases receive greatest space? What is the author's point of view? Are weaknesses omitted or overplayed? Does the author get at hidden motives? What new facts are revealed? Is the subject still living? What source materials were used?

History: What training does the author have? What historical period is addressed? Is the account broad or detailed? Is the style reportorial or interpretive? Is emphasis on traditional matters or social history? Are dates used intelligently? Is the book likely to become outdated? Are maps, illustrations, charts helpful?

Contemporary Thought: Who is the author and what right do they have to write on the subject? What contributions to knowledge are made?

Travel and Adventure: Is the author credible? What is the author's purpose? Does the book contribute to knowledge of geography, government, folklore? Does it have news value?

Mystery: How effective are plot, pace, style, and characterization? Is the ending worthwhile and predictable?

Children's Literature: What is the age/interest group? What is the overall experience of reading? Is the book illustrated? By whom?

Becoming an Expert Reviewer

Reviewing can be daunting since you may feel unqualified. The point is that someone wants to know what you think. Nobody expects you to be the intellectual equal of the work's creator, but careful observations provide raw material for reasoned judgments. Tactfully voicing agreement and disagreement, praise and criticism, is a valuable skill requiring concrete evidence for assertions.

💡 Why this matters: Becoming an expert reviewer requires developing confidence in your observations and the ability to support judgments with specific evidence from the work being reviewed.

WRITING AN OBITUARY

What Is An Obituary?

An obituary is more than merely a 'good-bye' to the deceased—it is a farewell that can, in chronological order, detail the life of the deceased. It also serves as notification that an individual has passed away and provides details of memorial services.

The length may be dictated by space available in the newspaper. Therefore, check how much room is available before composing. The obituary needs to appear in print a few days prior to the memorial service.

Many newspapers simply put down the facts, following this pattern:

1. Name of deceased
2. Date of death
3. Cause of death
4. Date of birth
5. Who the survivors are
6. Anything notable done by the deceased
7. Funeral information, plus visitation/viewing information if any

🔑 Definition — Obituary: A written notice of a person's death that provides biographical details, notification of death, and information about funeral or memorial services, typically published in newspapers.

📌 Example: "Joe Blow, a 26-year resident of Podunk, Nevada, died Feb. 27, 2007, of cancer. Born on Feb. 28, 1930, he married Sue Monish on Feb. 14, 1922. She preceded him in death. He was a veteran of the Second World War and had received the Navy Cross and the Purple Heart for bravery. Survivors are son Bill, Podunk, daughter, Jill Johnson, Las Vegas, 6 grandchildren. Funeral services Saturday, 2 p.m., Podunk chapel. Visitation one hour before the service. Burial at Podunk cemetery with full military honors."

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical elements students must remember are: press releases must follow journalistic style using the inverted pyramid structure, with headlines under 80 characters and leads under 25 words, while avoiding promotional language and writing in active voice. Reviews are argument-based commentaries, not summaries, requiring thesis statements and critical evaluation organized around content, style, assessment, and conclusion. Obituaries follow a standard factual format including name, dates, cause of death, survivors, notable achievements, and funeral details, with length determined by newspaper space. All three formats demand objectivity, factual accuracy, and audience awareness, with grammar and style errors damaging credibility in every case. The key skill across all formats is thinking like a journalist—presenting information neutrally while engaging the intended audience effectively.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the four main components of a press release structure according to the lecture, and what purpose does each serve in the inverted pyramid format?

2. Why should press release writers avoid promotional language and "Buy Me" means, and what specific strategies does the lecture recommend for maintaining journalistic objectivity?

3. What are the four common features shared by all reviews, and why is the "assessment" component considered the most important?

4. When planning a book review, what seven categories of information should you collect before writing the actual review?

5. What is the standard seven-point pattern for writing an obituary, and why should length be determined before composition begins?

📘 Lecture 44 — The Art of Interviewing

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the techniques and strategies for conducting effective journalistic interviews. It covers different interview types, provides comprehensive advice on preparation, execution, and follow-up, and emphasizes the goal of discovering "actual reality" beyond what sources readily share.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture introduces seven types of interviews—the quickie, vox pop, ambush, phony, performa type, phone tip-offs, and in-depth interviews. It then provides twenty-two detailed pieces of advice for conducting interviews, covering preparation, questioning techniques, building rapport, note-taking, ethical considerations regarding off-the-record comments, handling quotes, and the pursuit of different levels of reality in reporting.

📝 Lecture Summary

The Art of Interviewing

Information for a story can be gathered through research, observation, and interviewing, with interviewing being the most important method. It can be conducted in person, over the phone, or by email. A reporter's ability to talk to people is what separates a mediocre reporter from a good one.

Interview Types

The lecture lists seven types of interviews:

1. The quickie
2. Vox pop (man-on-the-street interviews)
3. Ambush (unexpected interviews, often with reluctant subjects)
4. Phony (disingenuous or manipulative interviews)
5. Performa type (interviews done as a mere formality)
6. Phone tip-offs (interviews initiated by a phone tip)
7. In-depth interviews (comprehensive, exploratory conversations)

Conducting Interviews: Advice

This section provides 22 detailed pieces of advice, which can be grouped into stages:

Preparation and Planning (Advice 1-4): Thorough preparation signals to the subject that you are professional. Read all available material and talk to those who know the subject. Determine the tentative theme for your story and prepare a list of questions. Mix open-ended questions (e.g., "Tell me about...") to elicit feelings and unexpected information with closed-ended questions (e.g., "How old are you?") for basic facts. Dress appropriately for your subject, avoiding anything flashy or rebellious.

🔑 Definition — Open-ended question: A question that allows the interviewee to respond freely and in detail. 🔑 Definition — Closed-ended question: A question that elicits a specific, often short, factual answer.

Building Rapport and Conducting the Interview (Advice 5-14): Think of the meeting as a friendly conversation, not an interrogation. Establish rapport early on, perhaps delaying taking out your notebook. Make eye contact, smile, and show you are listening by nodding or leaning forward. Observe and record body language, mannerisms, and the surroundings. Listen critically and focus on the source's answers, not your next question. Don't interrupt or challenge too early. Begin with easy questions and use examples or anecdotes. Be prepared to go with unexpected directions but remain in charge. Stop after one hour, as the best material sometimes comes after you have thanked the subject.

🔑 Definition — Rapport: A harmonious relationship with mutual understanding and trust. 🔑 Definition — Anecdote: A short, interesting or amusing story about a real incident or person.

Accuracy and Ethics (Advice 15-22): Make accuracy your goal. Ensure quotes are accurate; if not, paraphrase. Summarize the subject's main points to confirm understanding. Tell the subject you will call back to check facts. Use a tape recorder as a backup with permission. Assume all conversation is "on the record." If the subject asks for parts to be "off the record," clarify the ground rules (e.g., can the information be used without attribution, or not at all?). Direct quotes are essential but must be 100% accurate; "clean up" bad grammar but never alter meaning.

🔑 Definition — Paraphrase: To restate someone else's ideas or words in your own words. 🔑 Definition — "On the record": Information that can be published with the source's name attributed. 🔑 Definition — "Off the record": Information that cannot be published or attributed, with varying levels of restriction.

The Search for "Actual Reality" (Advice 21-22): A good reporter reports at one level, but a great reporter seeks "actual reality," which lies beneath what subjects are willing to say and report. There are three levels: "reportable reality" (subject knows, will tell, and lets you report), "private reality" (subject knows, will tell, but won't let you report), and "actual reality" (subject knows but will not tell you at all). Strive to discover this "actual reality" through every legal and ethical means, as journalism is often what someone doesn't want you to print.

🔑 Definition — Reportable reality: Information a source willingly shares and allows to be published. 🔑 Definition — Private reality: Information a source shares but does not allow to be published. 🔑 Definition — Actual reality: The deepest truth the source knows but will not reveal.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The lecture emphasizes that interviewing is the most crucial method for gathering information in journalism. Effective interviewing requires thorough preparation, including research and a mix of open and closed questions. Building rapport through body language, active listening, and a conversational approach is essential for a successful interview. Accuracy and ethical conduct are paramount, requiring careful handling of quotes, paraphrasing, and clear understanding of "on" and "off the record" rules. Ultimately, a great reporter's goal is to move beyond surface information to discover the "actual reality" of a story through persistent, ethical questioning.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between an open-ended question and a closed-ended question, and when should each be used?
2. Explain the three levels of reality a reporter should try to uncover during an interview, as described in the lecture.
3. What are the key steps a journalist should take to ensure the accuracy of quotes and information gathered during an interview?
4. If a source asks to go "off the record," what crucial questions must the reporter clarify to avoid a misunderstanding?
5. List at least five pieces of advice from the lecture regarding a journalist's behavior and attitude during the interview itself.

📘 Lecture 45 — FINAL THOUGHTS

📖 Overview: This lecture serves as a comprehensive review of the entire course on Journalistic Writing (MCM310). It reinforces the importance of writing in personal, academic, and professional life, recaps the core principles of good writing, and summarizes all major topics covered throughout the semester, from grammar and style to journalistic formats.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture reviews the purpose and qualities of good writing and good writers, including Fowler's all-time favorite words. It recaps the writing process stages, important aspects of words and dictionaries, parts of speech, basic grammar sense, grammatical and effective sentences, style pitfalls, paragraphs and essays, high impact language, writing styles, the art of persuasion, research writing, reading skills, punctuation and mechanics, and finally, journalistic language analysis and various newspaper-related writing formats.

📝 Lecture Summary

Purpose and Importance of Writing

The lecture begins by quoting Donald Norman, who called writing “the most important tool for human advancement.” Writing is described as practical, job-related, social, stimulating, and therapeutic. 💡 Why this matters: This establishes that writing is not just an academic exercise but a fundamental life and career skill.

Qualities of a Good Writer and Good Writing

A good writer is an effective communicator, a fact finder, is reader, purpose and context sensitive, an influencer of readers’ behaviors, and knows his medium. Good writing, according to Gowers et al., should be “terse, simple and direct” and avoid “unusual, longwinded, stilted and circumlocutory” phrases.

Fowler’s all time favorite words are:

1. Prefer the familiar word to the far-fetched.
2. Prefer the concrete word to the abstract.
3. Prefer the single word to the circumlocution.
4. Prefer the short word to the long.
5. Prefer the Saxon word to the Romance.

The Writing Process

Following a writing process helps writers organize their thoughts, avoid frustration and procrastination, and use their time productively and efficiently.

The writing stages are: Invention, Collection, Organization, Drafting, Revising, Proofreading.

Words and Dictionaries

How words are formed includes word forms, portmanteau words, prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. Important word aspects include collocations, figurative language, and connotations. Dictionaries are of types: unabridged, abridged, and learner’s dictionaries. Dictionaries can tell you about word, meaning, pronunciation, grammar, label, polysemy, etymology, collocation, register, and more.

Parts of Speech and Grammar

Parts of speech are divided into picture words (noun, adjective, verb, adverb) and function words (pronoun, determiner, conjunctions, interjection).

Basic clause patterns are: SV, SVO, SVC, SVI, D, SVOD. Sentence types are: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Sentence purpose includes: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and explanative. Modifiers are: adjective, adverb, appositive, and prepositional.

Grammatical and Effective Sentences

A grammatical sentence requires mastery of: Subject-Verb Agreement, Problems with Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs, Sentence Fragments, and Comma Splices & Fused Sentences.

An effective sentence requires attention to: sentence length, unity, coherence, emphasis, and parallelism.

Style Pitfalls

Common style pitfalls to avoid include: Colloquialism, Circumlocution, Ambiguity, Redundancy, Cliché, Euphemism, Grandiloquence, Inseparable, Slang, and Verbiage.

Paragraphs and Essays

Paragraph types include: Simple listing paragraphs, Order of importance paragraph, Time order paragraph, and Spatial order paragraph.

Essays focus on: strategy and the terms of question, response, coherence, words, and grammar.

High Impact Language and Signal Words

Use of high impact words, sentences, and appearance is important. Signal words help with flow.

Writing Styles and Art of Persuasion

Writing styles include: Report, Descriptive, and Narrative writing.

The art of persuasion relies on Ethos (ethics), Pathos (emotion), and Logos (logic). Rhetorical devices include: parallelism, triads, antithesis, and rhetorical questions.

Research Writing, Reading, Punctuation

Research writing involves APA and MLA styles, including creating a Reference Page and using Parenthetical Citations. The lecture also reviews reading skills, punctuation, and mechanics.

Journalistic Language Analysis

When analyzing a newspaper language, one should look at: 1. Register, 2. Lexis, 3. Grammar, 4. Metaphorical language, 5. Sources, and 6. Typographical features.

Newspaper Related Writing

The lecture reviews various forms of newspaper writing:

• Inverted pyramid: the standard news writing structure.
• Editorials: opinion of the newspaper.
• Columns: opinion of the columnist.
• Features: a research, investigative, or detailed reporting piece.
• Articles: analytical essays.
• Letters to editors: opinion of the public.
• Press release: sending news to a newspaper.
• Reviews: critical analysis or commentary of a text, object, place, or event.
• Obituary: death news.
• Interviews: to seek information from resource persons.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical takeaway from this lecture is the overarching importance of clear, concise, and honest communication, as stated by Kessler and McDonald. Students must remember the fundamental qualities of a good writer and good writing, particularly Fowler's preference for familiar, concrete, single, short, and Saxon words. The entire writing process—from invention to proofreading—is a vital tool for productivity and clarity. Mastering grammar, avoiding style pitfalls like redundancy and cliché, and understanding different sentence and paragraph structures are non-negotiable foundations. Finally, familiarity with all journalistic formats, from the inverted pyramid to editorials and features, is essential for a career in the field.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. List the five qualities of a good writer as presented in this lecture.
2. What are the six stages of the writing process?
3. Name the three main types of dictionaries and two things each can tell you about a word.
4. Identify and define the three main types of style pitfalls that a writer should avoid.
5. What is the standard structure for news writing, and how does it differ from an editorial or a feature?