ENG101 — Midterm Summary (Lectures 1–22)

📘 Lecture 1 — Reading and Dictionary

📖 Overview: This introductory lecture is divided into two parts. The first part teaches students what a dictionary is, its nine key uses, and how to use it efficiently as a reference tool. The second part presents two reading texts—a North American folk tale and a classic fable—to develop reading comprehension skills. Mastering dictionary use is foundational for becoming an independent English learner.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with a definition of a dictionary and a detailed exploration of its nine uses: spelling, pronunciation, part of speech, origin of words, meaning/explanation, usage/restrictive labels, synonyms & antonyms, foreign words & phrases, and general information. It then provides a step-by-step guide on how to use a dictionary, including understanding alphabetical order and guide words. The second half of the lecture moves to reading comprehension, presenting the folk tale "Raven and the Coming of Daylight" and a fable about a country mouse and a town mouse, followed by comprehension questions.

📝 Lecture Summary

Dictionary Uses (9)

A dictionary is a book that records the words of a language and tells you how speakers spell, pronounce, define, explain, and use those words. It is a reference book that provides useful information, but it is valuable only if you learn to use it correctly and efficiently. The lecture lists nine specific things you can learn from a dictionary.

(i) Spelling Many students find English spelling confusing. You should consult your dictionary to clarify confusion by showing you the different spellings of the same word, such as BRE (British English) and AE/US (American English) spellings. For example, the words catalogue and theatre are listed with both spellings, and both are correct.

(ii) Pronunciation A dictionary helps you learn pronunciation, but only if you are familiar with the symbols in which they are written. All language dictionaries carry a pronunciation key/table. Be sure to read it.

(iii) Part of speech All dictionaries indicate the part of speech a word belongs to, whether it is commonly used as a Noun, Pronoun, Verb (transitive, intransitive), Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, or Preposition.

(iv) Origin of Words Some dictionaries indicate the origin and derivation of a word before it became an English word.

(v) Meaning/ Explanation / Definition of words The most important information a dictionary provides is a word's meaning. Most words have many meanings or shades of meaning. Do not just read the first listed meaning; go down the numbered list and look for the meaning that best suits the context in which the word is used. Also, look up words above and below the word you are looking for, as they are often closely related and can help extend your recognition of the word.

(vi) Usage/Restrictive Labels A dictionary uses different labels like Br (British), Am (American), fml (formal), infml (informal), col (colloquial), pl (plural), poetic (poetic), sl (slang). If a word is no longer in current use, it will be labelled archaic (arch) or obsolete (obs) .

(vii) Synonyms and Antonyms Similar and opposite meanings of words are also given, but not in all dictionaries.

(viii) Foreign words and Phrases Dictionaries define many common foreign words and phrases, either with the main entries or in a special section at the back.

(ix) General Information This section varies from dictionary to dictionary. It may include names of important persons, places, countries, nationalities, rules for spelling, punctuation, a list of common first names in English, systems of weights and measures, and conversion tables.

How to use a dictionary

Learning what a dictionary contains and how it is used will save much of your time.

Step I: Know the correct order of the letters of the English alphabet. All entries in a dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order. Words are arranged according to the 1st letter, then the 2nd letter if the 1st is the same, then the 3rd, and so on.

Step 2: Finding Words Quickly When looking for a word, first thumb through pages quickly, looking only at guide words. When you come to the guide word nearest the word you want, then look down that page for the word. The words in heavy type at the top of any page are the guide words. The word on the top left is the same as the first bold face word on that page, and the word on the top right is the last bold face entry on that page.

Reading: Raven and the Coming of Daylight

This is a folk tale from North America about a natural event. In the story, when the earth was very young, Gull was the Custodian of Daylight and kept it locked in a cedar box. The People needed light. Raven tricked Gull by making him step on a thorn and then pretending he needed more light to remove it. By pushing the thorn deeper each time, Raven made Gull open the box wider and wider until the sun slithered out and light and warmth blazed over the world for good. The story explains the release of daylight over the earth.

Reading: The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse

This is a fable about a country mouse who visits his friend, a town mouse, in a great house. The country mouse enjoys fine food, but is terrified by a door opening and the barking of dogs. He decides he prefers his own poor, quiet hole with homely grey peas to the dangerous town life. The moral of the story is "To each his own environment."

⭐ Key Takeaways

The dictionary is an essential tool for an independent English learner, providing information on spelling, pronunciation, meaning, and usage. To use it effectively, you must understand alphabetical order and guide words. When looking up a word's meaning, always consider the context to find the correct definition. In reading, a folk tale explains a natural event (like the origin of daylight) using magical ideas, while a fable teaches a specific moral lesson. The lecture establishes that reading for general meaning is a key skill, not just decoding every word.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the nine uses of a dictionary listed in the lecture?
2. How does a dictionary use guide words to help you find a word quickly?
3. What does the restrictive label "sl" or "arch" mean in a dictionary entry?
4. In the story "Raven and the Coming of Daylight," what natural event does the tale explain?
5. What is the main lesson or moral of "The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse"?

📘 Lecture 2 — Pronunciation

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on using a dictionary to master English pronunciation, addressing the common confusion caused by English spellings. It introduces phonemic symbols for vowels and consonants, explains the concept of stress, and provides exercises for practical application through listening and dictionary work.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by demonstrating how the same spelling (e.g., "ch") can have different pronunciations, then introduces phonemic symbols for short vowels (7), long vowels (5), and diphthongs (8). It covers consonant sounds (24) and explains word stress, including how stress can distinguish parts of speech. A reading passage on computers is provided, followed by two pronunciation exercises focusing on listening and stress placement.

📝 Lecture Summary

Pronunciation

This lesson addresses the common difficulty students face when trying to pronounce an English word correctly after reading it, due to the inconsistency between spelling and sound.

🔑 Definition — Pronunciation: The way in which a word is spoken, determined by its sounds and stress.

Look at the following words:

• Chorus: the letters 'ch' are pronounced with a 'k' sound.
• Church: the letters 'ch' are pronounced with the 'chey' sound (like the Urdu/Punjabi letter :).
• Ration: the letters '-tion' are pronounced as 'sh'.
• Machine: the letters 'ch' are also pronounced as 'sh'.

📌 Example: The word 'chorus' begins with the letters 'ch', which are pronounced as a 'k' sound. In contrast, in the word 'church', the same letters 'ch' are pronounced as the 'chey' sound.

💡 Why this matters: English spellings are not always reliable guides to pronunciation. A dictionary must be consulted, and special phonemic symbols (given in slash brackets / /) are used to indicate each speech sound.

Short Vowels (7)

There are 7 short vowel sounds in English.

📐 Formula / Symbol Set: The seven short vowels are indicated by specific phonemic symbols. (The lecture presents a chart of these symbols).

Long Vowels (5)

There are 5 long vowel sounds in English.

📐 Formula / Symbol Set: The five long vowels are indicated by specific phonemic symbols. Notice that the symbols for long vowels have two small dots in front of them.

Diphthong Vowels (8)

Next we have 8 diphthong vowels. These are sounds which are produced by combining two vowel sounds.

🔑 Definition — Diphthong: A sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, where there is a movement or glide from one vowel sound to another.

📐 Formula / Symbol Set: There are 8 diphthong sounds in English. The lecture instructs students to "repeat after me" to practice these sounds.

💡 Why this matters: So there are 20 vowel phonemes in English: 7 short, 5 long, and 8 diphthongs.

Consonant Sounds (24)

Now we will look at the consonant sounds/phonemes. In English there are 24 consonant sounds. These are the sounds produced by the complete or partial stoppage of breath.

🔑 Definition — Consonant: A speech sound produced by the complete or partial obstruction of the airflow in the vocal tract.

Stress

Stress is the extra force used in pronouncing or speaking a particular word.

🔑 Definition — Stress: The extra force or emphasis placed on a syllable in a word. A dictionary will indicate stress by a tiny mark on the top of a word like this: `.

📌 Example — Stress Placement:

• In words like 'mother', 'table', and 'after', the first part of the word is stressed.
• In words like 'hotel', 'bamboo', and 'banana', the stress falls on a different syllable.

There are some words in English which have the same spelling but belong to different parts of speech because they are stressed differently.

📌 Example — Stress and Parts of Speech:

• rebel (n): "The `rebels laid down their arms."
• rebel (v): "Children rebel against their parents."
• present (n): "The `present was lovely."
• present (adj): "Were you `present at the party?"
• present (v): "Please present your work."

💡 Why this matters: When you look up a word in the dictionary, be sure to learn where the stress falls on the word, as incorrect stress can change the meaning or part of speech of a word.

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture emphasizes that English pronunciation is not intuitive from spelling, requiring the use of a dictionary with phonemic symbols. Mastering the 20 vowel phonemes (7 short, 5 long, 8 diphthongs) and 24 consonant sounds is essential for correct articulation. Word stress is a critical feature that can distinguish between nouns and verbs (e.g., rebel vs. rebel). Practical exercises, such as listening for correct words and looking up stress in a dictionary, are crucial for developing accurate pronunciation.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. How many vowel phonemes are there in English, and how are they categorized?
2. What is the difference between a long vowel and a diphthong?
3. How can the stress pattern of a word change its grammatical function? Provide an example.
4. Why is it important to use a dictionary when learning English pronunciation?
5. What is the total number of consonant sounds in English?

📘 Lecture 3 — Reading for Main Idea

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on developing essential reading skills for academic success. It teaches students how to identify the topic of a paragraph, extract the main idea, and recognize supporting details. Mastering these skills enables faster and more accurate reading, which is critical for effective studying.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture is structured into three parts: first, learning to identify the topic of a paragraph; second, learning to pick the main idea of a paragraph; and third, learning to recognize details that support the main idea. The lesson includes several practical exercises using textbook paragraphs to apply these skills, such as identifying topics from multiple-choice options and selecting the best statement that expresses a given topic sentence.

📝 Lecture Summary

Topic of a paragraph

If you can identify the topic of a paragraph, it will greatly improve your reading ability. A good reader can quickly identify the paragraph's topic. The topic is the subject of the whole paragraph — what the entire paragraph is about. It can usually be expressed in a word or two. When reading a paragraph, ask yourself: "What is the writer trying to say or discuss throughout the paragraph?" The answer that comes to mind will be the topic.

🔑 Definition — Topic: The subject of the whole paragraph, i.e., what the whole paragraph is about. It can usually be expressed in a word or two.

Text 1 Example: "New species of plants are being discovered every year. It is estimated that the yearly average, for the higher groups of plants alone is approximately 4700 proposed new species. It is obviously necessary, from practical as well as scientific standpoint that attention be given to the naming and the proper classification of the vast assemblage of plants, both native and cultivated. The scientists who do these things are systematic botanists or taxonomists..." Correct answer: D. importance of classifying new plant species.

Text 2 Example: "The term Groups has long been a pivotal concept of sociology. A group is any number of human beings in reciprocal communications..." Correct answer: B. definition of a group.

Text 3 Example: "Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil; they take in oxygen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere... Plant physiology is the area of botany concerned with the study of these activities and functions." Topic: Plant physiology

🔑 Definition — Topic sentence: A sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph. The lecture provides exercises where a topic sentence is given, followed by three statements, and the student must choose the statement that best expresses the topic sentence.

📌 Example 1: Topic Sentence: "The Nile, the largest river in Egypt, is unique because it:" A. describes where Egypt is. B. explains why the river is unique C. compares the Nile with other large rivers. Correct answer: B — explains why the river is unique.

📌 Example 2: Topic Sentence: "A little-known story about M.A. Jinnah tells about his manner of thinking." A. Describes the passing of the Lahore Resolution. B. Summarizes Jinnah's speech at Lahore, March 1940. C. Relates the "Little Known Story". Correct answer: C — Relates the "Little Known Story"

📌 Example 3: Topic Sentence: "If you want to spend your holidays in a truly unique place, the northern areas of Pakistan are just the place for you." A. Identifies the place and explain its uniqueness. B. Explains the physical and emotional importance of holidays. C. Relates the history of the Pushtoons. Correct answer: A — Identifies the place and explain its uniqueness.

Recognizing Supporting Details

The third skill is recognizing details which support the main idea. Supporting details are specific facts, examples, or explanations that elaborate on the main idea. The lecture provides exercises where a topic sentence is given, followed by several statements, and the student must determine which statements serve as supporting details.

📌 Text 4 Example: Topic Sentence: "The development of speech in infants follows a definite sequence or patterns of development." Details: A. By the time an infant is six months old, he or she can make twelve different speech sounds. B. Before the age of three months, most infants are unable to produce any recognizable syllables. C. During the first year, the number of vowel sounds a child can produce is greater than the number of consonant sounds he can make. D. During the second year, the number of consonant sounds a child can produce increases. E. Parents often reward the first recognizable word a child produces by smiling or speaking to the child. All statements A-E are supporting details that illustrate the sequence of speech development.

📌 Text 5 Example: Topic Sentence: "In some parts of the world, famine is a constant human condition and exists due to a variety of causes." Details: A. In parts of Africa, people are dying of hunger by the tens of thousands. B. Famine is partly caused by increased population. C. Advances in medicine have increased life expectancies, keeping more people active for longer periods of time. D. Agricultural technology has not made substantial advances in increasing the food supply. E. Due to growth of cities, population has become denser, and the agricultural support for these population centers is not available. Statements A-E are all supporting details that describe the condition and causes of famine.

📌 Text 6 Example: Topic Sentence: "An individual deals with anxiety in a variety of ways and produces a wide range of responses." Details: A. Anxiety may manifest itself by such physical symptoms as increased heart activity or labored breathing. B. Fear, unlike anxiety, is a response to real or threatened danger. C. Psychologically, anxiety often produces a feeling of powerlessness, or lack of direct control over the immediate environment. D. Temporary blindness, deafness, or the loss of the sensation of touch is examples of extreme physical responses to anxiety. E. Some people cannot cope with anxiety and are unable to control the neurotic behavior associated with anxiety. Statements A, C, D, and E are supporting details about anxiety responses. Statement B is about fear, not anxiety, so it does not support the topic sentence.

💡 Why this matters: Being able to distinguish between main ideas and supporting details is essential for effective note-taking, summarizing, and understanding complex academic texts.

⭐ Key Takeaways

The lecture teaches three critical reading skills that students must master: identifying the topic of a paragraph (the subject expressed in one or two words), selecting the main idea (often stated in a topic sentence), and recognizing details that support the main idea. Students should practice by asking "What is this paragraph about?" to find the topic, using topic sentences as anchors for understanding paragraphs, and distinguishing between the main point and the evidence or examples that support it. The ability to read English rapidly and accurately depends on purposeful practice of these skills, as reading improves through consistent reading itself.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between the topic of a paragraph and the main idea of a paragraph?
2. When reading a paragraph, what specific question should you ask yourself to identify the topic?
3. In Text 1, why is "new plant species" not the correct answer for the topic, while "importance of classifying new plant species" is correct?
4. In Text 6, which detail statement does NOT support the topic sentence about anxiety, and why?
5. What are the three reading skills taught in this lesson, and how does each build upon the previous one?

📘 Lecture 4 — Reading: Topic, Main Idea

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on practicing the skills of identifying the topic, main idea, and supporting ideas in each paragraph of a text. Students apply these skills to a six-paragraph text about computers, learning to distinguish the main idea from supporting details for better reading comprehension.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture introduces strategies for reading academic texts by identifying paragraph topics, main ideas, and supporting details. It then applies these strategies to a text about computers, covering the definition of a computer, its basic job of processing information, its three basic capabilities (arithmetic, communication, decision-making), input/output methods, and the limitations of computer intelligence. Exercises include choosing the overall main idea and true/false comprehension checks.

📝 Lecture Summary

Reading: Topic, Main Idea

This lesson practices previously learned skills: A. Identifying the topic of each paragraph. B. Identifying the main idea. C. Identifying supporting ideas. The given text is about computers and consists of six paragraphs. Students are instructed to read the text once without stopping, then re-read, pausing after each paragraph to ask what it is about. Each paragraph has a topic, a main or primary idea and/or secondary ideas that support the main idea.

What is a computer?

Paragraph 1: A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states (on/off; magnetized/demagnetized). The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and off or magnetize or demagnetize the cores. 🔑 Definition — Topic: A computer is a machine. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: We can make the machine do what we want it to do. 🔑 Definition — Supporting Idea: Machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters.

Paragraph 2: The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as a device which accepts information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, performs mathematical and/or logical operations on the information, and then supplies results. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory. 🔑 Definition — Topic: Processing of information. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: The program, which tells the computer what to do and stores the information, is called memory.

Paragraph 3: Computers have three basic capabilities. First, computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, exponentiation). Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user — if we couldn't feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn't be of much use. However, certain computers (minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft's navigation systems, medical instruments, etc. 🔑 Definition — Topic: Powers of computers. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: Three basic capabilities of computers. 🔑 Definition — Supporting Idea: Computers are used to control robots, aircraft navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.

Paragraph 4: Some common methods of inputting information are to use punched cards, magnetic tape, disks and terminals. The computer's input device (card reader, tape drive, or disk drive) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information, two common devices are a printer (prints on paper) or a CRT display screen (shows results on a TV-like screen). 🔑 Definition — Topic: Method of inputting information. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: Input and Output devices. 🔑 Definition — Supporting Idea: Examples of devices.

Paragraph 5: Computers have circuits which can make decisions. The computer can only decide three things: Is one number less than another? Are two numbers equal? Is one number greater than another? 🔑 Definition — Topic: Circuits that make decisions. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: Computer can only make logical decisions.

Paragraph 6: A computer can solve problems and make thousands of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find solutions in a fraction of time. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to instructions and cannot exercise any valuable judgments. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and gives it appropriate information. As electric pulses move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases would be dead long before the job was finished. 🔑 Definition — Topic: Speed at which a computer works. 🔑 Definition — Main Idea: A computer works according to instructions. 🔑 Definition — Supporting Idea: Computer operations are limited.

Main idea

Now that each paragraph has been read in detail, the text as a whole is considered. Four statements are given and students must choose the one that best expresses the main idea of the entire passage.

The correct answer is: "Instructions and data must be given to the computer to act on."

The other choices do not give the distinctive characteristics of what a computer is — they simply provide details. 💡 Why this matters: The main idea captures the central point of the entire text, while supporting ideas expand on details. The correct main idea emphasizes that computers require human-given instructions and data to function.

Understanding the Passage

Students decide if statements are true or false by referring to the text.

• Statement 1: "A computer can store or handle any data even if it hasn't received information to do so." → False. Corrected: "A computer can store or handle any data which is input."
• Statement 2: "All computers accept and process information in the form of instructions and characters." → True
• Statement 3: "The information necessary for solving problems is found in the memory of the computer." → True
• Statement 4: "Not all computers can perform arithmetic operations, make decisions and communicate in some way with the user." → False. Corrected: "All computers can perform arithmetic operations, make comparisons and output information."
• Statement 5: "Computers can still be useful machines even if they can't communicate with the user." → False
• Statement 6: "There are many different devices used for feeding information into a computer." → True
• Statement 7: "There aren't as many different types of devices used for giving results as there are for accepting information." → True
• Statement 8: "Computers can make any type of decision they are asked to." → False. Corrected: "A computer can decide only these things: Is one number less than another? Are two numbers equal? Is one number greater than another?"
• Statement 9: "Computers can work endlessly without having to stop to rest unless there is a breakdown." → True

Content Review

Complete the statements with appropriate words from the word bank (core, device, data, circuit, terminal, switch, program, memory, medium, CRT display).

1. Every computer has circuits for performing arithmetic operations, operating switches or magnetized cores.
2. A terminal with a screen is normally referred to as a CRT display unit.
3. A computer is a device that processes information in the form of data and program and can store this information in a memory.
4. Card readers, tape drives, or disk drives are different media for inputting information.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that each paragraph in an academic text has a distinct topic and a main idea supported by secondary details. The main idea of the entire passage about computers is that instructions and data must be given to the computer to act on, which captures the essential nature of a computer as a machine dependent on human input. Key distinctions include: computers have three basic capabilities (arithmetic, communication, decision-making), but the only decisions a computer can make involve comparing numbers (less than, equal, greater than). Finally, while computers process information at incredible speed, they have no originality and cannot exercise judgment — they require human-given instructions to function.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the topic of Paragraph 5?
2. What are the three basic capabilities of a computer mentioned in Paragraph 3?
3. What is the main idea of the entire passage about computers?
4. What is the difference between the main idea and supporting ideas in a paragraph?
5. According to Paragraph 6, what are the limitations of a computer compared to a human?

📘 Lecture 5 — Connectives and Link Words: References

📖 Overview: This lecture teaches students how to recognize and use references and connectives — words and phrases that link ideas within and between sentences. Mastering these links is essential for improving reading speed and comprehension, as they make text smoother to read and help readers follow the logical flow of ideas.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture introduces two types of linking devices: references (pronouns and substitutes that point to earlier or later words) and connectives (transitional markers that show relationships like result, contrast, comparison, illustration, cause and effect, time sequence, and addition). It provides categorized word lists, examples, and practice exercises to help students identify and use these devices correctly.

📝 Lecture Summary

Connectives and Link Words: References

In this lesson, you will practice recognizing references and connectives — words and phrases that link ideas in a sentence. Sentences and paragraphs express ideas that are connected to each other. These words make the text smoother to read. Your reading speed and comprehension will increase considerably if you are able to recognize the links between and within the sentences. References are sometimes relative pronouns, sometimes demonstrative pronouns, or adverbs. Sometimes they are substitutes for words that have come earlier or will come later.

💡 Why this matters: Recognizing these links helps you follow complex arguments and technical explanations without getting lost.

🔑 Definition — Reference: A word (often a pronoun or substitute) that refers back to a previously mentioned idea or forward to an idea yet to come.

Example from Text 1:

• Sentence 1: "Mr. Salman bought a new car. His children haven't seen it yet." → "His" refers to Mr. Salman; "it" refers to the car.
• Sentence 3: "Everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If so, he will probably resign. If not, we should apologize to him." → "If so" refers to the idea that the chairman is guilty; "If not" refers to the opposite possibility.

Connectives

Now you will look at another kind of link made by conjunctions that join ideas into some kind of relationship within the text. These words or phrases are also known as transitional markers that connect ideas together. They indicate: Result, Contrast, Comparison, Illustration/Example, Cause and Effect, A Series/Time Sequence, and Addition.

1. Words that signal RESULT

thus, therefore, as a consequence, hence, accordingly, consequently

🔑 Definition — Result Connectives: Words that show that what follows is a consequence or outcome of what came before.

2. Words that signal a CONTRAST

but, in contrast, conversely, however, instead, nevertheless, yet, still, even though, although, despite, on the other hand, on the contrary, in spite of

🔑 Definition — Contrast Connectives: Words that show a difference or opposition between two ideas.

3. Words that show COMPARISON

like, likewise, as well, just as, just like, similarly, in the same way, in a similar fashion, equally, as

Examples:

1. "Driving a motor car is a skill we learn through practice. Similarly, cooking is a skill we learn through hands-on experience."
2. "When family members communicate, they are more likely to solve their problems. In a similar fashion, countries can best solve their problems through communication."

4. Words that show ILLUSTRATION / EXAMPLE

for example, to illustrate, once, for instance, such as, including

5. Words that show CAUSE AND EFFECT

thus, because, because of, consequently, since, result, therefore, accordingly, as a result, so, if...then

6. Words that show A SERIES / TIME

one, two, three, first, second, third, next, before, after, until, since, soon, previously, lastly, afterward, finally, then, often, immediately, while, during, frequently, as, now, at last

Examples:

1. "First I skim the newspaper to see what films are on, and then I circle the ones I want to record on the VCR."
2. "Previously, the two countries got along. Now, they have resumed diplomatic relations."

7. Words that show ADDITION

and, also, and...too, besides, being, furthermore, one in addition, first of all, also, second, secondly, third, thirdly, another, next, finally

Sample Paragraph 1 Analysis

Some people, of course, still believe that Shakespeare could not have written the plays attributed to him, but they have difficulty in explaining the fact that many contemporaries of Shakespeare, who knew and worked with him, considered him, first, as the actual author, and second, a very fine author indeed. Ben Johnson, for example, never doubted the authenticity of the plays. William Green also referred to Shakespeare as a very fine playwright. These are only two of the many contemporary references that leave little doubt that Shakespeare wrote the plays of William Shakespeare.

References identified:

• him → Shakespeare (1st occurrence)
• they → few (people)
• who → contemporaries
• him → Shakespeare (2nd occurrence)
• him → Shakespeare (3rd occurrence)
• these → Ben Johnson, William Green

Connectives identified:

• of course, but, first, second, for example, also

Sample Paragraph 2 Analysis

A computer like any other machine is used because it does certain jobs better and more efficiently than humans. It can receive more information and process it faster than any human. The speed at which a computer works can replace weeks or even months of pencil-and-paper work. Therefore, computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost which is one of the many reasons they are used so much in business, industry and research.

References identified:

• it (1st) → computer
• It → computer (like any other machine, is used because)
• it (2nd) → information
• their → computers
• which → the time saved offsets their cost
• they → computers

Exercise 1: Reference and Connective Identification

Paragraph 1: Computers are electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user, of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making three kinds of decisions. However, they are incapable of thinking. They accept data and instructions as input, and after processing it they output the results.

Answers:

• that → machines
• they → computers
• they → computers
• it → input
• they → computers
• connective: However

Paragraph 2: When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the latter refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hardware while processing the data.

Answers:

• former → hardware
• which → programs
• connective: whereas (contrast)

Paragraph 3: The first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal. There are three different kinds of computers in use today: the mainframe, the minicomputer and the microcomputer. These all have one thing in common: they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems.

Answers:

• these → the mainframes, the minicomputer, and the microcomputer
• they → do (computers)

Exercise 2: Fill in the Gaps with Connectives

Text: Floppies are very cheap, however they are slow and have a limited capacity. Hard disks are fast and can store large amounts of data but they are fixed inside the computer, so you cannot use them to transfer data. You can transfer data with removable hard disks, but they are expensive. CD-ROM disks can hold quite large amounts of data. However they are usually read only so you cannot change the information on them. Magneto-optical disks are like CD-ROMs but you can write data on to them. They are removable and have large capacities, but they are expensive and do not conform to a standard. For this reason they are not very common. Magnetic tape is cheap and has a large capacity. However it does not allow random access and drives are slow. Therefore it is only suitable for backups.

⭐ Key Takeaways

References (pronouns like he, she, it, they; demonstratives like this, these; and substitutes like so, not) point to ideas that came before or will come later — identifying what each reference points to is critical for understanding text. Connectives/transitional markers (such as however, therefore, similarly, for example, because, first, and also) show the logical relationship between ideas — result, contrast, comparison, illustration, cause-effect, time sequence, or addition. Recognizing these devices dramatically improves both reading speed and comprehension, especially in technical or academic texts. Mastering reference and connective identification enables you to follow complex arguments and understand how ideas are organized within paragraphs. Practice exercises like those in the lecture train your eye to spot these linking words and connect them to the ideas they refer to.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. Identify the referent: In the sentence "Computers are electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user," what does "They" refer to?

2. Categorize the connective: In the sentence "Driving is a skill learned through practice. Similarly, cooking is a skill learned through hands-on experience," what type of connective is "Similarly"?

3. Fill in the blank: Floppies are cheap; _______, they are slow and have limited capacity. Which connective from the contrast category fits best?

4. Explain the difference: What is the difference between a reference and a connective in terms of what they do in a text?

5. Identify all connectives in this sentence: "First I skim the newspaper to see what films are on, and then I circle the ones I want to record on the VCR." List each connective and its category (series/time or addition).

📘 Lecture 6 — Reading Skills

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on developing reading comprehension skills through the study of a text about the history of computers. Students practice understanding new vocabulary from context, identifying main ideas, and performing various comprehension exercises based on the historical development of computing devices.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture presents a detailed historical timeline of computing devices from primitive counting methods through the fourth generation of computers, followed by comprehensive exercises testing main idea comprehension, true/false understanding, information location, vocabulary development (synonyms and antonyms), content review matching, and reference word identification.

📝 Lecture Summary

History of Computers

The first calculating device was the ten fingers, which is why we still count in tens and multiples of tens. The abacus was invented as a bead frame where beads move from left to right, and it was used through the 16th century and is still used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, J. Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is how the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier’s ideas to produce logarithm tables, which all mathematicians use today. Calculus was independently invented by Sir Isaac Newton (English) and Leibnitz (German).

The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820, depending on a series of ten toothed gear wheels, saving time and reducing mistakes. In 1830, Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed ‘The Analytical Engine’, which he showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855. This was an attempt to cut out the human being except for providing the machine with necessary facts. Babbage never finished this work, but many of his ideas became the basis for today’s computers.

In 1930, the first analog computer was built by American Vannevar Bush and was used in World War II to help aim guns. Mark I, the first digital computer, was completed in 1944 by Professor Howard Aiken and IBM. This machine could figure out long lists of mathematical problems at a very fast rate. In 1946, J. Ecker and J. Mauchly built the first digital computer using vacuum tubes, naming it ENIAC. In 1947, John von Neumann developed the idea of keeping instructions inside the computer’s memory.

The first generation of computers (1950) used vacuum tubes, with Univac I performing thousands of calculations per second. The second generation (1960) worked ten times faster due to transistors replacing vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more dependable. The third generation (1965) could do a million calculations per second (1000 times more than first generation), controlled by tiny integrated circuits, making them smaller and more dependable.

Fourth-generation computers have integrated circuits greatly reduced in size due to microminiaturization, where circuits fit onto a single chip — a square or rectangular piece of silicon (1/10 to 1/4 inch) upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, then encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth generation computers are 50 times faster than third-generation and can complete approximately 1,000,000 instructions per second.

💡 Why this matters: The rate of computer technology growth is so rapid that today’s computers might be obsolete quickly — if transport technology had developed as rapidly, a trip across the Atlantic would take a few seconds.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that computers evolved from simple counting devices (fingers, abacus) through mechanical calculators (Babbage’s Analytical Engine) to electronic computers across four generations. The key technological milestones are vacuum tubes (first generation), transistors (second generation), integrated circuits (third generation), and microminiaturization onto chips (fourth generation). Each generation brought dramatic increases in speed (from thousands to millions of calculations per second) and decreases in size and dependability. The ability to understand vocabulary from context, identify main ideas, and reference specific information in text are critical reading skills being developed. Important names to remember include Charles Babbage (father of computers), Vannevar Bush (first analog computer), and John von Neumann (instructions in memory).

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What were the three earliest calculating devices mentioned in the text, and in what order were they used?
2. Why is Charles Babbage considered important in computer history, even though he never finished the Analytical Engine?
3. What technological change marked the difference between first and second generation computers?
4. What is microminiaturization, and how did it affect fourth-generation computers?
5. Who developed the concept of keeping instructions inside the computer’s memory, and what year did this occur?

📘 Lecture 7 — Word Formation

📖 Overview: This lecture explores how English words are constructed using prefixes, stems, and suffixes. Understanding word formation enables students to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words, expand their vocabulary efficiently, and recognize patterns that reveal a word’s part of speech and definition.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture introduces the three structural components of English words: prefix, stem, and suffix. It explains how prefixes alter meaning and suffixes change part of speech, provides extensive tables of noun‑, verb‑, adjective‑, and adverb‑forming suffixes with examples, and teaches how to locate base words when spelling changes occur. Practical exercises reinforce recognition and application of suffixes in context, and a recap summarizes the core concept of affixes.

📝 Lecture Summary

Word Formation

When reading, you will encounter unfamiliar words. Guessing their meanings is often possible if you understand how English words are generally formed. Learning the use and meaning of words in English can be made easier, and even enjoyable, if you understand something about the way in which many English words are formed.

An English word can be divided into three parts: Prefix, Stem, and Suffix.

Prefix

Pre– means “before”; therefore, a prefix is what comes before the stem.

🔑 Definition — Prefix: a form that is fixed to the beginning of a stem.

📌 Example: Consider the prefix de– (meaning “reduce” or “reverse”) in the word demagnetize (“to deprive of magnetism”).

Suffix

A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem.

🔑 Definition — Suffix: a form that is fixed to the end of a stem.

📌 Example: Consider the suffix –er (meaning “someone who”) in programmer (“the person who programs”).

Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes.

Stem

The stem of a word is its basic form, the fundamental element that is common to all the other forms of the word.

🔑 Definition — Stem: the root of the word.

📌 Example:

• Stem = measure
• Suffix = measurable
• Prefix = immeasurable

A prefix usually changes the meaning of a word, while a suffix usually changes its part of speech. For instance, the suffix –able changes verbs into adjectives (breakable, enjoyable). The prefix im– changes the meaning to the opposite: measurable means “capable of being measured”; immeasurable means “not capable of being measured.”

💡 Why this matters: By learning only a few prefixes and suffixes, you will be able to recognize or guess the meaning of hundreds of English words.

The English language makes frequent use of this method of word formation. Notice the numerous words formed on the stem act:

Affixes

Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes.

Suffixes and Their Meanings

Study these tables and try to find additional examples. Use your dictionary if necessary.

Noun‑forming Suffixes

Verb‑forming Suffixes

Adverb‑forming Suffixes

Adjective‑forming Suffixes

Locating Base Words

It is sometimes difficult to locate the base word because their spellings frequently change when suffixes are added to them.

1. If a base word ends in e, the e may be dropped when a suffix is added to it.
   Mature + ity = maturity

2. If a base word ends in y, the y may be changed to i when a suffix is added to it.
   harmony + ous = harmonious

3. Base words may undergo other spelling changes when suffixes are added to them.
   reclaim + ation = reclamation (the l in reclaim is dropped)

Exercise 1 – Locating Base Words

Locate the base words in the boldface words and write them on the given lines.

1. We established the authenticity of our antique chair.
   We have an authentic antique chair.

2. We enjoy the collegiate athletic games.
   We enjoy the athletic games at college.

3. The automobile left her comatose.
   The accident left her in a coma.

4. We had comparative good luck.
   If you compare our luck with that of others, our luck was good.

5. Can you differentiate between them?
   Can you see how they differ?

6. His knowledge of China is not experiential.
   His knowledge of China is not based on actual experience.

7. She has expertise in mathematics.
   She is an expert in mathematics.

8. She gave her answer with finality.
   We knew her answer was final.

9. They have servile attitudes.
   They have attitudes of those who serve.

10. The numbers are in tabular form.
    The numbers are in a table.

11. We enjoyed her commentary on the news.
    We enjoyed her comments about the news.

12. Who were the disputants?
    Who engaged in the dispute?

13. This machine has a multiplicity of parts.
    It has multiple parts.

Exercise 2 – Identifying Suffixes and Parts of Speech

Read the following sentences and underline all the suffixes. Then try to find out what parts of speech the words are.

1. The systems analyst provides the programmer with the details of the data processing problems.
2. CRT terminals are very useful interactive devices for use in offices because of their speed and quietness.
3. The new microcomputer we purchased does not have a Fortran compiler. It is programmable in Basic only.
4. A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores.
5. In very large and modern installations, the computer operator sits in front of a screen that shows an up‑to‑date summary of the computer jobs as they are being processed.
6. The introduction of terminals and screens has partly replaced the use of punched cards.
7. Binary arithmetic is based on two digits: 0 and 1.
8. Multiplexing is when many electrical signals are combined and carried on only one optical link.
9. Computers are machines designed to process electronically specially prepared pieces of information.
10. The computed results were printed in tables.

Exercise 3 – Fill in the Blanks with Appropriate Word Forms

1. operation, operate, operator, operational, operationally, operating
   a. A computer can perform mathematical operations very quickly.
   b. One of the first persons to note that the computer is malfunctioning is the computer operator.
   c. The job of a computer operator is to operate the various machines in a computer installation.
   d. The new machines in the computer installation are not yet operating/operational.

2. acceptance, accept, accepted, acceptable, acceptably
   a. A computer is a device which accepts, processes, and gives out information.
   b. The students are still waiting for their acceptance into the Computer Sciences program.
   c. It is acceptable to work without a template if the flowcharts are not kept on file.

3. solution, solve, solvable, solver
   a. It may take a lot of time to find a solution to a complex problem in programming.
   b. A computer can solve a problem faster than any human being.
   c. A computer has often been referred to as a problem solver.

4. remark, remarkable, remarkably, remarked
   a. Today’s computers are remarkably faster than their predecessors.
   b. Systems analysts will often make remarks about existing programs to help make the operations more efficient.
   c. There have been remarkable developments in the field of computer science in the last decade.

5. communication, communicate, communicable, communicative, communicably
   a. A computer must be able to communicate with the user.
   b. Fiber optics is a new development in the field of communication.
   c. Some people working in computer installations aren’t very communicative because they are shy.

6. calculation, calculate, calculating, calculated, calculator, calculable, calculus
   a. A computer can do many kinds of calculations quickly and accurately.
   b. Calculus is a branch of mathematics for making calculations without the use of a calculating machine.
   c. A computer can calculate numbers much faster than a manual calculator.
   d. Some problems aren’t calculable without logarithm tables.

7. mechanic, mechanism, mechanize, mechanical, mechanically, mechanistic, mechanics, mechanization, mechanized
   a. Today’s computers are less mechanized than they used to be.
   b. The mechanical devices in a computer system operate more slowly than the electromagnetic devices.
   c. The mechanism of the brain is very complicated, but unlike a computer it isn’t mechanical.

8. necessity, necessitate, necessary, necessarily, necessities, need, needed
   a. Because it is expensive to set up a computer department, it is necessary to budget well for the basic necessities of the installation.
   b. A good programmer isn’t necessarily going to be a good systems analyst.
   c. Students’ lack of understanding of the basic concepts in computer science may necessitate the instructor to restructure the course.

9. dependence, depend on, dependable, dependably, dependent, dependency, depending
   a. The length of time a programmer takes to make a program will vary depending on the complexity of the problem and his ability and experience.
   b. One can always depend on a computer to obtain accurate answers because it’s probably the most dependable machine in the world today.

10. technology, technological, technologically, technologist
    a. Computer technology is a fast‑growing discipline.
    b. The technological improvements of computers are reducing man’s workload.

Let Us Recap

An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem, and a suffix. The prefix is what comes before the stem. A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem. A stem is the root of the word. Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that English words are built from three components: prefix, stem, and suffix. The prefix changes the meaning of a word, while the suffix usually changes its part of speech (e.g., noun, verb, adjective, adverb). Learning common affixes (such as –er, –tion, –able, –ly, –ize, im–, re–) enables you to guess the meanings of hundreds of unfamiliar words. When locating the base word, be aware that spelling changes occur: the final e may be dropped, y may change to i, or other letters may be altered when a suffix is added. Both prefixes and suffixes together are called affixes.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three parts into which an English word can be divided?
2. What is the difference in function between a prefix and a suffix?
3. Give two examples of noun‑forming suffixes and two examples of verb‑forming suffixes.
4. How does spelling change when adding a suffix to a base word ending in e? Provide an example.
5. What term is used to refer to both prefixes and suffixes collectively?

📘 Lecture 8 — Word Formation- Prefixes

📖 Overview: This lecture explores vocabulary building through the use of prefixes and stem words, demonstrating how understanding common prefixes can dramatically expand vocabulary. It also introduces synonyms and antonyms as additional tools for vocabulary enhancement, covering their characteristics and proper usage.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by explaining how prefixes (letter groups added to the beginning of stem/base words) can help decode unfamiliar vocabulary, then presents a comprehensive list of 19 common English prefixes organized by category including negative/positive, size, location, time/order, and number. It provides detailed tables of prefixes with meanings and examples (especially computer-related), followed by exercises for practice. The second half introduces synonyms and antonyms, explaining that most synonyms share meaning in only one sense and often have subtle shades of meaning differences, with final mastery exercises testing word meaning selection.

📝 Lecture Summary

Word Formation- Prefixes

A prefix is a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a stem/base word. For example, in untrue, the prefix is un- and the stem/base word is true. Understanding prefixes helps decode unfamiliar words. For instance, illimitability contains the stem word limit (meaning 'to restrict') and the prefix il- (meaning 'not'), so the word refers to something that has no limits or restrictions.

🔑 Definition — Prefix: a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a stem/base word that changes its meaning.

The lecture presents a table of 19 common prefixes with their meanings and examples:

1. un- = not/no (unhappy means not happy)
2. non- = not/no (nonliving means not living)
3. dis- = not/no (to distrust is not to trust)
4. in- = not/no (indirect means not direct)
5. im- = not/no (imperfect means not perfect)
6. ir- = not/no (irrational means not rational)
7. il- = not/no (illegal means not legal)
8. a- = not/without (atypical means not typical)
9. pre- = before (prewar means before a war)
10. post- = after (postwar means after a war)
11. anti- = opposing (antiwar means opposing war)
12. pro- = favoring (prowar means favoring war)
13. inter- = between (interstate means between states)
14. hyper- = excessive(ly) (hyperactive means excessively active)
15. mal- = bad(ly) (malnutrition is bad nutrition)
16. mis- = incorrect(ly) (to misspell is to spell incorrectly)
17. pseudo- = false(ly) (a pseudoscience is a false science)
18. semi- = partly (semipublic means partly public)

Defining Words with Prefixes

Students practice making sentences by identifying stem words and prefix meanings in boldface words. Examples include: asocial (not social), hyperactivity (excessively active), illimitable (having no limit), impenetrable (not able to be penetrated), intercontinental (between continents), irreparable (not reparable), maladjustment (bad adjustment), pseudo biographical (false biography), semiconscious (partly conscious), and unutterable (not utterable).

💡 Why this matters: If you know that adapt means 'to make suitable' and you know the meanings of prefixes like mal-, non-, pre-, re-, and un-, you instantly understand the essential meanings of 24 related words even if you have never seen them before.

Word Formation - Prefixes (Computer-Related)

The lecture then presents additional prefixes organized by category, with computer-related examples:

Negative and Positive Prefixes:

Prefixes of Size:

Prefixes of Location:

Prefixes of Time and Order:

Prefixes of Numbers:

Other Prefixes:

Exercise 2

Students read sentences and underline prefixes, then identify meanings from tables. Examples include: non-impact printers, unmagnetized strips, octal and hexadecimal systems, primary memory, multiprogramming, peripheral devices, decoder, microcomputers, transmits, and semiconductor.

Exercise 3

Fill in blanks with correct prefixes. Answers: 1. Megabyte = one million bytes. 2. Multiplexing = many electrical signals combined on one optical link. 3. Interblock gaps separate blocks. 4. Decimal system has base 10. 5. Interactive devices for airline reservations. 6. Monochromatic screens vs. multicolor. 7. Subschema = description of parts. 8. Primary storage. 9. Demagnetized cores. 10. Semiconductor memories.

Exercise 4

Read a paragraph about computer history and underline prefixes, then complete a table. The paragraph discusses: prior (before), development, calculations, post-war (after war), predecessors (those before), semiconductors, microminiaturization, microcomputers, and forecasted.

Exercise 5: Review of Suffixes

Read a paragraph and underline suffixes. The paragraph describes computers' abilities to solve problems, make decisions, find solutions, work according to instructions, operate like mechanical 'brains', and carry out arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously.

Synonyms and Antonyms

Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning. For example: big, large, huge, enormous, monumental, gigantic, immense, and colossal are synonyms.

🔑 Definition — Synonyms: words that share the same or nearly the same meaning.

First Characteristic: Most synonyms have similar meanings in only one of their senses. For example, appropriate and apt are synonyms when meaning 'fit' for a specific purpose. "He made an appropriate/apt remark." However, apt can also mean 'likely' ("When nervous he is apt to laugh"), while appropriate does not share this meaning.

Second Characteristic: Synonyms often have shades of meaning beyond the meaning they share. For example, blame and denounce both refer to making an unfavourable judgement, but blame fixes responsibility for an error while denounce states intense disapproval in public.

📌 Example: If a letter is misdelivered to your mailbox, you may blame the postman, but you would not publicly denounce them. However, if elected officials steal taxpayers' money, they are denounced — severely criticized in public.

Final Mastery: Selecting Word Meanings

Students select the closest synonym for boldface words:

1. Admonish = warn
2. Efface = wipe out
3. Perennial = enduring
4. Subjugate = defeat
5. Dissolute = immoral
6. Jeer = ridicule
7. Adherent = supporter
8. Semblance = appearance
9. Irate = angry
10. Altercation = argument
11. Intrepid = fearless
12. Revile = abuse
13. Trite = stale
14. Rectify = correct
15. Daunted = intimidated
16. Prattle = talk
17. Brazen = shameless
18. Exodus = departure
19. Impoverished = poor
20. Lucid = clear

⭐ Key Takeaways

A prefix is a letter group added to the beginning of a stem word that changes its meaning, and knowing common prefixes allows you to decode hundreds or thousands of unfamiliar words instantly. The most important prefixes to remember include negative prefixes (un-, non-, dis-, in-, im-, ir-, il-, a-), size prefixes (semi-, micro-, mini-, macro-, mega-), location prefixes (inter-, trans-, sub-, peri-), and number prefixes (mono-, bi-, tri-, quad-, multi-). Synonyms share similar meanings but often only in one specific sense, and they frequently have subtle shades of meaning that make them non-interchangeable in all contexts. Understanding both prefixes and synonyms is essential for vocabulary building and precise communication.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is a prefix and how does it change the meaning of a word?
2. What is the difference between the prefixes anti- and pro-? Provide an example for each.
3. Why are appropriate and apt not always interchangeable as synonyms?
4. What is the difference in meaning between blame and denounce?
5. List three prefixes of size and three prefixes of numbers with their meanings and one example each.

📘 Lecture 09 — Dear SteReading: Description, Locating Information

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on improving reading comprehension through guided reading of a text about computers. Students learn to understand new words from context, locate specific information, identify main ideas, and organize information from paragraphs into main ideas, major details, and minor details.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture presents a reading passage about computers and their characteristics (input, processing, output, storage, hardware components, versatility, and historical development). It then provides multiple exercises: main idea identification, true/false comprehension, locating information in paragraphs, contextual reference (pronoun antecedents), synonyms/antonyms, word forms, content review, and paragraph organization (main idea, major details, minor details).

📝 Lecture Summary

Characteristics

[Summary of the reading passage and its key points about computers]

Computers are machines designed to process electronically specially prepared pieces of information called data. Handling or manipulating information through calculations, adding information, or making comparisons is called processing. Computers are made up of millions of electronic devices capable of sorting or moving data at enormous speed through complex circuits.

All computers have several characteristics in common regardless of design. Information in the form of instructions and data is given to the machine (input), the machine acts on it (processing), and the result is shown (output). These three basic concepts occur in almost every aspect of human life. For example, in clothing manufacturing, the input is cut cloth, the processing is sewing, and the output is the finished garment.

🔑 Definition — Data: specially prepared pieces of information processed electronically by computers. 🔑 Definition — Processing: handling or manipulating information given to a computer by doing calculations, adding information, or making comparisons. 🔑 Definition — Input: the information presented to the machine. 🔑 Definition — Output: the result produced after processing. 📌 Example: In clothing manufacturing, input = cut cloth pieces, processing = sewing together, output = finished garment.

STORAGE

Figure 3.1 shows the fundamental hardware components in a computer system. The centerpiece is called the computer, processor, or central processing unit (CPU). The term 'computer' includes parts where calculations and data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed internal memory where data and calculations are stored during program execution. Attached to the CPU are various peripheral devices such as card readers and keyboards (input devices). When data or programs need to be saved for a long period, they are stored on secondary memory devices or storage devices such as magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

🔑 Definition — CPU (Central Processing Unit): the centerpiece of a computer system where calculations and data manipulations are performed. 🔑 Definition — Peripheral devices: devices attached to the CPU, such as card readers and keyboards. 🔑 Definition — Secondary memory devices: storage devices like magnetic tapes or magnetic disks used for long-term data storage. 💡 Why this matters: The distinction between internal memory (temporary, fast) and secondary memory (permanent, slower) is fundamental to understanding how computers manage data.

[Paragraph 4 - Versatility of Computers]

Computers have often been thought of as extremely large adding machines, but this is a narrow view of their function. Although a computer can only respond to a certain number of instructions, it is not a single-purpose machine since these instructions can be combined in an infinite number of sequences. Therefore, a computer has no known limit on the kinds of things it can do; its versatility is limited only to the imagination of those who use it.

🔑 Definition — Versatility: the ability of a computer to perform unlimited kinds of tasks, limited only by human imagination.

[Paragraph 5 - Historical Development]

In the late 1950s and early 1960s when electronic computers were being developed, they were very expensive to own and run. Their size and reliability required a large number of support personnel to keep equipment operating. This has all changed now that computing power has become portable, more compact, and cheaper.

[Paragraph 6 - Impact on Work]

In a very short period, computers have greatly changed the way many kinds of work are performed. Computers can remove many routine and boring tasks from our lives, giving us more time for interesting, creative work. Computers have created whole new areas of work that did not exist before their development.

📌 Example: Computers removed routine tasks and created entirely new job categories that did not exist previously.

Organizing Information: Paragraph Components

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop an idea. In nearly every paragraph, one idea is more important than others — this is the main idea, usually found at the beginning of the paragraph.

All main idea sentences have a topic and say something about the topic.

🔑 Definition — Main idea: the most important idea in a paragraph, usually expressed in the first sentence. 🔑 Definition — Major details: details that grow out of and support the main idea. 🔑 Definition — Minor details: details that grow out of and provide more information about major details.

Sample Paragraph 1 Analysis: Main idea: "All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities." Major details:

1. They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations.
2. They all have a way of communicating with the person(s) using them.
3. They also have circuits for making decisions.

Sample Paragraph 2 Analysis: Main idea: It is the incredible speed of computers along with their memory capacity that make them so useful and valuable. Major details: a. Computers can solve problems in a fraction of time. b. Modern computers can store information with high accuracy and reliability. Minor details: a. Computers are used in business to keep accounts. b. Airlines, train lines, and bus lines use them to track ticket sales. c. A computer can put data into its memory and retrieve it in a few millionths of a second. d. It has storage capacity for as many as a million items.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding paragraph structure (main idea → major details → minor details) helps students grasp and remember complex information by breaking it into manageable components.

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture teaches that effective reading comprehension requires understanding vocabulary from context, locating specific information quickly, and identifying paragraph structure. Students must remember that all computers share basic components (input, processing, output, storage) and that the CPU is the central component. The three fundamental concepts of input, processing, and output occur in everyday life, not just computing. Most importantly, a paragraph can be analyzed into main idea, major details, and minor details — a skill essential for academic reading and studying. Students should also know that computers are versatile machines limited only by human imagination, and that historical trends have made them smaller, cheaper, and more portable.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three basic concepts that occur in almost every aspect of human life, according to the text?
2. What is the centerpiece of a computer system called, and what does it include?
3. What are two examples of secondary memory devices mentioned in the lecture?
4. What limits a computer's versatility according to the text?
5. What are the three components into which a paragraph can be organized to aid understanding and memory?

📘 Lecture 10 — Reading: Word Forms

📖 Overview: This lecture explores mainframes — large, powerful computer systems used for processing immense amounts of data. It distinguishes between digital, analog, and hybrid computers, explaining their characteristics, uses, and limitations. Understanding these distinctions is fundamental for grasping computer architecture and system classification.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture first defines mainframes as large computer systems with high-speed memories and complex instruction sets, then classifies them into digital, analog, and hybrid types, explaining how each operates (digital computers do calculations step-by-step like a cash register; analog computers work continuously like a speedometer; hybrid computers combine both). It also discusses the physical requirements of mainframes — bulky size, refrigeration, air filtration, and high power consumption — and concludes with the future need for improved mechanical devices.

📝 Lecture Summary

Mainframes

Mainframes are large computer systems found in installations processing immense amounts of data. These powerful computers use very high-speed main memories into which data and programs are transferred for rapid access. They have a larger repertoire of more complex instructions which can be executed more quickly. Whereas smaller computers may take several steps to perform a particular operation, a larger machine may accomplish the same thing with one instruction.

These computers can be of two types: digital or analog. The digital computer or general-purpose computer as it is often known makes up about 90 percent of the large computers now in use. It gets its name because the data presented to it are made up of a code consisting of digits — single-character numbers. The digital computer is like a gigantic cash register in that it can do calculations in steps, one after another, at tremendous speed and with great accuracy.

📌 Example: The digital computer does calculations in steps, one after another, like a cash register — at tremendous speed and with great accuracy.

Digital computer programming is by far the most commonly used in electronic data processing for business or statistical purposes. The analog computer works something like a car speedometer, in that it continuously works out calculations. It is used essentially for problems involving measurements. It can simulate, or imitate, different measurements by electronic means.

Types of Mainframes

Both of these computer types — the digital and the analog — are made up of electronic components that may require a large room to accommodate them. At present, the digital computer is capable of doing anything the analog once did. Moreover, it is easier to program and cheaper to operate. A new type of scientific computer system called the hybrid computer has now been produced that combines the two types into one.

🔑 Definition — Hybrid Computer: A computer system that combines the features of both digital and analog computers into one unit, used mainly in scientific research.

Physical Requirements and Future Development

Really powerful computers continue to be bulky and require special provision for their housing, refrigeration systems, air filtration, and power supplies. This is because much more space is taken up by the input/output devices — the magnetic tape and disk units and other peripheral equipment — than by the electronic components that do not make up the bulk of the machine in a powerful installation. The power consumption of these machines is also quite high, not to mention the price that runs into thousands of dollars.

The future will bring great developments in the mechanical devices associated with computer systems. For a long time these have been the weak link from the point of view of both efficiency and reliability.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding the physical constraints of mainframes (size, power, cooling) explains why modern computing has shifted toward more energy-efficient, miniaturized systems — yet mainframes remain critical for large-scale data processing tasks.

⭐ Key Takeaways

This lecture teaches that mainframes are powerful, bulky computer systems distinguished by their high-speed processing and ability to execute complex instructions. The three types — digital (step-by-step calculations, 90% of use), analog (continuous calculations for measurements, like a speedometer), and hybrid (combining both features) — each have distinct operating principles. Digital computers dominate due to ease of programming, lower cost, and capability to perform all analog functions. Physically, mainframes require significant space for peripheral equipment, refrigeration systems, and power supplies. The lecture concludes that future development is needed in mechanical devices to improve system efficiency and reliability.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. How does the operating principle of a digital computer differ from that of an analog computer?
2. What percentage of large computers currently in use are digital, and why are they preferred over analog computers?
3. What is a hybrid computer, and why was it developed?
4. Why do mainframes require special housing, refrigeration, and high power consumption?
5. According to the lecture, what has been the "weak link" in computer systems from the perspective of efficiency and reliability?

📘 Lecture 11 — Reading: Understanding Reading

📖 Overview: This lecture explores how to improve reading comprehension by understanding the writer’s techniques and methods. It emphasizes that reading is the most important academic skill and that poor reading can be improved through practice and awareness of rhetorical principles. The lecture also introduces comprehension approaches and the use of listing markers to understand text organization.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers vocalization as a cause of slow reading, the importance of understanding rhetoric (Why, What, How questions), the writer’s purpose (inform, persuade, entertain), attitude and tone, patterns of organization (time order, comparison/contrast, cause/effect), the role of transitions, function words vs. content words, comprehension approaches for imaginative and practical passages, seven kinds of comprehension questions, and the use of listing markers for enumeration and sequential relationships.

📝 Lecture Summary

Reading: Understanding Reading

Reading is the most important skill for academic success. Poor reading can be improved through practice. There is a relationship between reading speed and reading comprehension; reading slowly does not necessarily improve comprehension—it may actually reduce it. One cause of slow reading is vocalization—the forming of sounds of each word even without saying them aloud. Vocalization is a sign of poor reading; students should learn to read with their eyes and mind, not their lips, i.e., read silently.

Learning to recognize and understand the principles and methods of writing—rhetoric—helps improve reading. Successful readers must understand why a piece was written (Why?), what it says overall and in major sub-points (What?), and how the author organized the material (How?).

🔑 Definition — Vocalization: the forming of the sounds of each word while reading, even if not said aloud; a sign of poor reading.

The Writer’s Purpose, Attitude, and Tone

To answer Why?, remember the author has a reason for writing and works from a personal point of view. The skilled reader must recognize the writer’s PURPOSE, along with ATTITUDE and TONE—the expression of the writer’s feelings.

There are 3 common purposes of communication: to inform (gives facts about the topic), to persuade (aims to convince the reader to agree with the writer’s point of view), and to entertain (appeals to senses and imagination to amuse and delight).

ATTITUDE is the author’s approach, position, or stance toward his material, audience, and situation. For example, the writer can argue coolly and logically or angrily and heatedly; he can approach readers as friends, enemies, equals, or talk down from authority.

TONE is the voice in which the writer speaks—the language, words, and phrases chosen. Through tone, we sense wit, humor, sadness, indignation, friendliness, etc. Understanding tone is essential for comprehension; it may be evident from the first line or only after reading the entire piece.

Authors may combine different types of writing—narrate, describe, explain (exposition), or argue—in one piece. Description and narration often serve exposition or argument. Finding the underlying purpose and technique makes a successful reader.

💡 Why this matters: Recognizing purpose, attitude, and tone allows you to evaluate what you read critically and understand the writer’s intent beyond surface meaning.

The Writer’s Thesis and Supporting Details

The WHAT question leads to the author’s basic statement—his thesis statement about his subject. The thesis also indicates what the writer is NOT saying and the limitations set. A good reader reads within those boundaries.

Authors present supporting details in organized patterns. Common patterns of organization include: time order/sequences, list of items, comparison or contrast, cause and effect, definition and example. These patterns complete the writer’s main thought.

🔑 Definition — Thesis statement: the author’s basic statement about his subject that indicates what the writer is saying and the limitations he has set.

The HOW Question: Transitions and Key Words

The HOW question concerns the techniques and devices of organization. Recognition of main subdivisions, paragraph topic sentences, and transitions is key. Topic sentences are core statements that are developed with concrete details.

Transitions convey relationships between parts of a text. They are movement from or connection between one part and the next. They may be function words (small words like prepositions, conjunctions, modifiers: in, at, and, but) that establish emphasis and relationships) or content words (words central to the subject’s development).

Content words are often fully defined or assumed known by the author. Readers must understand these key words and notice how the author modifies them using synonyms (words with similar meaning) or antonyms (words in contrast).

🔑 Definition — Transitions: words and phrases that convey relationships between parts of a text, showing movement or connection between one part and the next. 🔑 Definition — Function words: small words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and modifiers (in, at, and, but) that establish emphasis and relationships. 🔑 Definition — Content words: words central to the development of the subject of a piece of writing.

An Approach to Comprehension

Comprehension exercises test understanding. Two varieties of reading materials exist: imaginative (creative writing, novel/short story extracts, poems) and practical (reports, accounts, opinions, instructions, statistics). For imaginative passages, readers must understand subtleties and implications and comment on style and word choice. For practical passages, the emphasis is on understanding the line of argument or logical step-by-step facts; readers may need to summarize points.

Kinds of Comprehension Questions

Seven kinds of questions are likely:

1. Meaning: Explain the meaning of a word or phrase as used in the passage (e.g., “execute” can mean “carry into effect” not “inflict capital punishment”).
2. Facts: Answer questions about what the passage actually says.
3. Reading between the lines: Understand implied emotions, attitudes, and points of view (e.g., “terrorists” vs. “freedom-fighters” reflect writer’s attitude).
4. Metaphorical language: Explain what a writer means by a comparison or metaphor (e.g., “bugled” suggests high-pitched, strident, triumphant sounds).
5. Style: Comment on how the writer writes—variety of sentences, words chosen, literary devices—and the appropriateness and effectiveness of style to content.
6. Summary: Pick out facts relevant to a particular point from the passage.
7. Opinions: Comment on views expressed, say if they are convincing, give personal views, or expand on an area of experience from personal point of view.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding these question types prepares you for exams and develops critical reading skills beyond surface comprehension.

Listing Markers

When reading, recognizing how sentences combine to present information is important. Information may be linked by connective words or markers. Making a list, enumerating, and giving instructions indicate a cataloguing of what is being said. Most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets.

LISTING MARKERS include:

• 1, 2, 3, etc.
• One, two, three, etc.
• First(ly), second(ly), third(ly)
• In the first/second/third place
• Another, next, then
• Furthermore, afterwards, moreover
• Lastly/finally
• To begin/start with, and to conclude
• First and foremost, First and most important(ly), Above all (mark beginning of descending order)
• Last but not least (marks end of ascending order)

The –ly forms (firstly, secondly, etc.) are usually used when listing.

📐 Formula: Listing Markers = Words that show order/sequence in a list or enumeration → They help readers follow the cataloguing of information.

📌 Sample Paragraph: “More and more police departments have now sophisticated devices to help control the increasing crime rate. Some of these are: Firstly, a computer terminal inside a police vehicle to answer an officer’s questions; secondly, a computer-controlled display unit for displaying fingerprints; and thirdly, educational systems for police officers... First and foremost, it has data on stolen items... Second, it has information on missing persons... Last but not least, it contains information on political extremist groups...” — The markers show sequence and importance of items.

📌 Exercise: In the paragraph “What Is a Computer?”, listing marks include: First, Second, Third, and numbered items 1, 2, 3.

📌 Exercise Example: Complete paragraph with listing markers: “Any businessman thinking of buying a computer system should firstly admit he knows very little about computers... Secondly, he must realize that the computer salesman doesn’t know how his business works. Thirdly, that he should get that outside advice is a must... Next, he should try to see systems similar to ones under consideration... he should then find out what would be involved in upgrading... Last but not least, the perspective buyer should demand that every detail be covered in writing.”

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that reading comprehension improves by understanding the writer’s three key questions: Why (purpose, attitude, tone), What (thesis statement and supporting details), and How (organization patterns and transitions). Slow reading caused by vocalization hinders comprehension—read silently with eyes and mind. The writer’s purpose can be to inform, persuade, or entertain, and recognizing tone and attitude is crucial for deep understanding. Finally, listing markers (firstly, secondly, next, finally, etc.) are vital for following the order and sequence of information in any text; practicing with these will improve both reading and exam performance.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is vocalization and why is it considered a sign of poor reading?
2. Name the three common purposes of communication for a writer and briefly explain each.
3. What is the difference between the writer’s attitude and the writer’s tone? Give an example of how tone might be conveyed.
4. What are the seven kinds of comprehension questions mentioned in the lecture? List them.
5. What are listing markers? Provide three examples of listing markers and explain what they indicate in a text.

📘 Lecture 12 — Reading: Making Inferences

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the critical reading skill of making inferences—drawing conclusions or understanding ideas that are not directly stated in a text. It explains how readers use clues, experience, and logic to "read between the lines," a higher-level skill essential for both non-fiction and creative writing, and provides extensive practice examples.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining inference and connecting it to everyday life and reading. It then walks through specific inference exercises, including analyzing pictures and short sentences. It provides practice with passages on super-automation and a descriptive paragraph. The lecture then focuses on making inferences in literature, analyzing poems like "Sixty–Eight Birthday" and "Fog," and finally discusses how a writer reveals character through dialogue, using a passage from P.G. Wodehouse.

📝 Lecture Summary

What is an Inference

Making inferences is the act of discovering the implied or underlying ideas in writing, often described as "reading between the lines." The writer implies something indirectly, and the reader draws a conclusion. This is a higher-level skill that combines reading and strong, logical thinking.

🔑 Definition — Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. In reading, it is a logical jump from stated information to unstated ideas.

Inferences in Everyday Life

We constantly make inferences in daily life based on our experience and general knowledge. For example, seeing a large crowd and broken glass outside a shop might lead you to infer there has been an accident. Not all inferences will necessarily prove true; the more evidence you have, the more solid your inference is.

📌 Example: Consider a high school with policemen walking in its main hall. A logical inference is that a public examination is going on or an important function is taking place.

📌 Example: Consider a dog that shrinks or cringes when you try to pat it. A logical inference is that the dog has previously been maltreated and is afraid of people.

Practice: Inferences from Pictures and Sentences

In reading, we use the writer’s clues, our own experience, and logic to draw conclusions about what is not known.

📌 Example:

Sentence: "Sohail always sits in the last row of the classroom." Inferences to evaluate:

• a. Sohail dislikes his college courses.
• b. Sohail is unprepared for his class.
• c. Sohail feels uncomfortable sitting in the front row.
• d. Sohail is farsighted. Answer: c. Based on the information, we can only conclude that Sohail does not like sitting in the front. We don’t have enough information to know why.

📌 Example 2:

Sentence: "The Arabic language contains numerous words describing different types of camels." Most logically supported inference: d. The exact nature of camels is important to the desert way of life.

📌 Example 3:

Sentence: "A man enters his office building, marches past a group of fellow employees without returning their greetings and goes into his office, slamming the door." Most logically supported inference: c. The man is in a bad mood.

Inferences in Non-Fiction Passages

The lecture provides a passage on super-automation and asks which statements are most logically supported.

📌 Passage on Super-Automation: This passage discusses how automation is eliminating jobs not only in factories but also in offices, agriculture, and retail. It mentions the use of computers by engineers, robot fruit pickers, and laser scanning. 💡 Why this matters: This exercise trains you to avoid jumping to unsupported or weakly supported conclusions.

The statements most logically supported by the given information are:

• 2. There will be more jobs for people who run and repair electronic devices.
• 3. One function of super automation is the handling and storage of information.
• 5. Machines can help company employees accomplish more.
• 7. Super automation has advantages and disadvantages.

Inferences in Literature

While non-fiction writers often state meaning directly, fiction or creative writers show meaning by describing a scene or situation. The reader must infer the point.

📌 Example of Non-fiction vs. Fiction:

• Non-fiction: "Henry was angry at his wife."
• Fiction: "Henry’s eyes narrowed when his wife spoke to him. He cut her off in the middle of the sentence with the words, 'I don’t have time to argue with you.'"

Poem 1: "Sixty–Eight Birthday" by James Russell Lowell

As life runs on, the road grows strange With faces new, and near the end The milestones into headstones change, ‘Neath every one a friend.

🔑 Definitions:

• Milestone: a slab of stone set up in the ground to show the distance in miles on a road.
• Headstone: a stone which marks the top end of a grave, usually having the buried person’s name on it.

Inferences from the poem:

1. The speaker is sixty-eight years old, implied by the title.
2. The poem compares life to a road with milestones marking the distance.
3. Birthdays are like milestones that mark the years lived.
4. The poem implies that life ends in death, as milestones turn into headstones.
5. The final line implies that as we get older, more and more friends die.

Poem 2: "Fog" by Carl Sandburg

The fog comes On little cat feet. It sets looking ones harbor and city On silent haunches And then moves on.

Inferences from the poem:

1. The way the fog moves is compared to: c. The way a cat moves.
2. This comparison implies that the fog: c. moves quickly and silently.
3. The comparison with the cat continues with the word: b. haunches.
4. The poem implies that the fog: a. stays for a while and then leaves.
5. The poem shows fog as: b. quiet.

Inferences from Dialogue

Writers, especially playwrights, reveal character through their characters' speech. Readers and audiences must "read between the lines" of the dialogue.

📌 Example from P.G. Wodehouse's Thank You, Jeeves: The dialogue shows the master (Bertie Wooster) asking verbose, nervous questions, and Jeeves responding with very short, economical answers like "No, sir." and "Indeed, sir?" 💡 Why this matters: This economy of speech implies several things: Jeeves is reserved, respectful, patient, and perhaps slightly controlling. It also suggests a master-servant relationship where Jeeves is the more intelligent and capable of the two.

⭐ Key Takeaways

An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence and reasoning, not a wild guess. The strength of an inference depends on the amount of supporting evidence; you must avoid jumping to conclusions. This skill applies to both everyday life and reading, where you use the writer's clues, your own experience, and logic. In fiction and poetry, writers often show rather than tell, making inference essential for understanding character and theme. Finally, extensive reading is the best way to acquire and strengthen this skill.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the formal definition of an "inference" in the context of reading?
2. According to the lecture, what two things does a reader use to draw a logical inference from a text?
3. Based on the example provided, why is "Sohail is farsighted" not a logically supported inference from the sentence "Sohail always sits in the last row of the classroom"?
4. In the poem "Fog," what specific action or quality of a cat is used to describe the fog's movement?
5. How does the lecture suggest a fiction writer reveals a character's anger, in contrast to a non-fiction writer?

📘 Lecture 13 — Reading: Assessing the Text

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on two critical reading skills: distinguishing facts from opinions in texts, and recognizing time sequences in scientific and technical writing. Mastering these skills allows readers to evaluate information critically and understand the chronological or logical order of events in complex materials.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture first examines how to differentiate between factual statements that can be objectively verified and opinion statements that express subjective beliefs or judgments, including the role of value-words and how opinions can be masked as facts. It then shifts to analyzing time sequences in texts, covering markers that indicate events occurring before, during, or after a given time reference, including chronological, logical, and causal sequences illustrated with examples about computer history.

📝 Lecture Summary

Distinguishing Facts from Opinions

Being able to dissociate facts from opinions is an essential first step in acquiring a critical ability. Most writers include their opinions, making their communication at least partly biased. Scientific reports try to be factual, while newspaper editorials, political speeches, and advertisements center on opinions to convince readers. A skilled reader must know the difference to evaluate what they read.

🔑 Definition — Fact: A statement that can be proved true through objective evidence, such as physical proof or witness testimony. 📌 Example: "The neem tree in our garden is 25 feet tall" can be measured and confirmed. "Pakistan won the 1992 World Cup" can be checked against sports records.

🔑 Definition — Opinion: A statement that cannot be objectively proved true or false. Opinions express beliefs, feelings, or judgments. 📌 Example: "The Alhamra Arts Council building is the most beautiful building in Lahore" — "beautiful" is a value-word that expresses personal judgment and cannot be verified objectively.

Value-words like good, bad, best, worst, terrible, better, lovely, wonderful, worse, and disgusting signal that an opinion is being expressed. For instance, "It's raining outside" is an objective, verifiable fact, but "It's bad weather" is a subjective opinion — some people consider rain good.

More Points about Fact and Opinion

i) A statement of fact can possibly be untrue — evidence may show a claimed fact is false.

ii) Opinions may be masked as facts — people sometimes present opinions using phrases like "in fact" or "the truth of the matter is." Example: "The economy, in fact, has been in worst condition for four years" appears factual but is an opinion.

iii) Value-words often represent opinions — these are subjective, not objective, and express judgment. Factual statements report observed reality; subjective statements interpret reality.

iv) Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion — a politician saying "My record is outstanding" uses the value-word "outstanding" which needs probing. An advertisement claiming a car "is the most economical on the road" seems factual but "economical" may be misleading if repair costs are high.

Analyzing Passages for Fact and Opinion

When reading passages, readers must be alert for opinion embedded within factual content.

📌 Example Passage about Cleopatra:

• Sentence 2: "She is one of the most interesting figures" — opinion (interesting differs per person)
• Sentence 4: "The story of how she died is very fascinating and easy to believe" — opinion
• Sentence 6: "As the Egyptian cobra was a symbol of royalty, so it was a good way for a queen to end her life" — mixture of fact and opinion

📌 Example Passage about Lovecraft and Poe:

• "Edgar Allan Poe is the greatest writer of horror stories" — opinion ("greatest" is a value-word)
• "Poe had to leave the University of Virginia because he couldn't pay his debts" — fact (verifiable)
• "Lovecraft died in the conditions of shameful neglect" — opinion ("shameful" is subjective)

💡 Why this matters: The ability to separate fact from opinion is essential for evaluating political speeches, advertisements, news editorials, and even everyday conversations critically.

The Sequences

In addition to enumeration markers (from Lesson 11), it is equally important to recognize time sequences in which events occur, especially for scheduling, recounting historical facts, routine activities, and describing experiments. Events occur either before, during, or after other events in chronological, logical, or causal sequences. Once a time-reference is established, certain adjectives and adverbials order subsequent information in relation to it.

Table 1: Previous to given time-reference (Before)

📌 Examples:

1. The memory storage capacity of earlier computers was not as large as these days.
2. When the first digital computer was developed, the first analog computer had already been in use for some time.
3. Up to now, computers have not created too much unemployment.

Table 2: Contemporary/Simultaneous time-reference (At the same time)

📌 Examples:

1. Computers might be used in the future as simultaneous translating machines.
2. At present, computers are used for printing newspapers.
3. In future, computers will probably replace most activities, but in the meantime scientists are still developing computers.

Table 3: Subsequent to time-reference (After)

📌 Examples:

1. Since the development of the chip, computers have become cheaper and more compact.
2. You should have a good basic understanding of computers by the time you finish this course.
3. After the development of transistors, the later computers were much faster.

N.B. Time sequence is also shown by different verb tenses. 📌 Examples:

1. Vannevar Bush had built the first analog computer long before Professor Aiken invented the first digital computer. (Past perfect shows earlier event)
2. At the rate computer technology is growing, computers, as we know them today, will soon become obsolete. (Future tense)

Sample Paragraph: Computer History Timeline

Computers, as we know them today, haven't been around for a long time. It wasn't until the mid-1940s that the first working digital computer was completed. But since then, computers have evolved tremendously. Vacuum tubes were used in the first-generation computers at the beginning of the 1960s. By the end of the 1960s, transistors were replaced by tiny integrated circuit boards. Fourth-generation computers are now produced with circuits much smaller than before on a single chip. Soon, fifth-generation computers will be produced, better than their predecessors.

Exercise: Underline Time Relaters in a Paragraph

A paragraph about computer history is provided with time relaters to identify:

• More than 5000 years ago
• first, then
• before or after
• Since that time
• well into the 16th century
• During the 17th and 18th centuries
• not until the early 1800s
• not too long after
• A hundred years later
• until 1944
• Since then
• in the 1950s, early 1960s, mid-60s, 1970s
• now
• by the end of this decade

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical concepts from this lecture for exam preparation are: first, a fact must be objectively verifiable while an opinion expresses subjective judgment signaled by value-words like "best," "worst," or "beautiful." Second, opinions are often masked as facts using phrases like "in fact" or "the truth is," requiring careful analysis. Third, time sequences are organized using specific time relaters that indicate events occurring before (earlier, previously), during (at present, meanwhile), or after (afterwards, subsequently) a given time reference. Fourth, verb tenses also communicate time sequence, such as past perfect for events that happened before other past events. Finally, distinguishing fact from opinion and recognizing time markers are essential for critically evaluating scientific reports, historical accounts, and even everyday reading materials.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the key difference between a fact and an opinion, and give one example of each from the lecture?
2. List five value-words that signal an opinion is being expressed.
3. How can an opinion be masked as a fact, and what phrase might be used to do so?
4. Name three time relaters that indicate events occurring before a given time reference, and three that indicate events occurring after.
5. In the sentence "Vannevar Bush had built the first analog computer long before Professor Aiken invented the first digital computer," what verb tense is used and what does it indicate about the time sequence?

📘 Lecture 14 — Reading: Assessing Texts

📖 Overview: This lecture explores the techniques writers use to bring characters to life in imaginative writing, examining five distinct methods of characterization. It then shifts to practical text analysis by examining how examples are signaled in academic and technical writing, particularly relevant to computer science fields.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture first examines how writers create characters through action, speech, direct statements, comparisons and associations, and association with particular points of view. It then analyzes examples from Dickens, Wodehouse, Wilson, and Blishen to illustrate each technique. The second half transitions to identifying how examples are introduced in technical texts, including explicit markers and implicit exemplification.

📝 Lecture Summary

Characters

Almost every example of imaginative writing involves people. A writer translates his vision of characters to the reader using only words, while a painter or photographer can present ideas visually. The writer achieves characterization through six methods: showing action, putting actual words into characters' mouths, using direct statements, making comparisons and associations, associating characters with one particular point of view or action, and choice of words picking out a particular feature or detail.

1. Action

Writers show character by having them perform typical actions or act in a particular way that reveals personality. An example from Charles Dickens' Great Expectations describes Pip's sister, Mrs. Gargery, cutting bread-and-butter: "My sister had a trenchant way of cutting our bread-and-butter for us that never varied. First, with her left hand she jammed the load hard and fast against her bib... Then she took some butter (not too much) on a knife and spread it on the loaf, in an apothecary kind of way, as if she were making a plaster-using both sides of the knife with a slapping dexterity... Then, she gave the knife a final smart wipe on the edge of the plaster, and then sawed a very thick round off the loaf; which she finally... hewed into two halves."

🔑 Definition — Characterization through action: Revealing personality by describing a character performing typical actions or behaving in a distinctive manner.

📌 Example: Mrs. Gargery's bread-cutting uses words like trenchant, jammed, slapping dexterity, sawed, and hewed — all suggesting a harsh, forceful, almost violent nature. The words build an impression of a stern, domineering woman who performs even simple tasks aggressively.

💡 Why this matters: The choice of verbs (not just the action itself) reveals character — "slapping dexterity" and "hewed" suggest far more than "cut neatly" would.

2. Speech

Writers indicate character through the words they put into characters' mouths. This is especially important in drama, but fiction writers use it too. An example from P.G. Wodehouse's Thank You, Jeeves shows Jeeves's speech:

"'Jeeves,' I said, 'do you know what?' 'No sir.' 'Do you know whom I saw last night?' 'no, sir.' 'J. Washburn Stoker and his daughter, Pauline.' 'Indeed, sir?' 'Awkward, what?' 'I can conceive that after what occurred in New York it might be distressing for you to encounter Miss Stoker, sir. But I fancy the contingency need scarcely arise.'"

🔑 Definition — Characterization through speech: Revealing character by what characters say and how they say it, including word choice, sentence length, and implied attitudes.

📌 Example: Jeeves's answers are very economical — mostly "No sir," "Indeed, sir?" — suggesting formality, restraint, and a servant's proper deference. Yet his longer reply ("I can conceive...") reveals his intelligence and subtle control, implying he already knows everything but will not say so directly.

3. Direct Statements

Some writers tell us about characters directly instead of showing them. They build detail on detail until we have a clear picture of appearance, habits, opinions, and life history. An example from Angus Wilson's A Little Companion describes Miss Arkwright:

"She was in no way a remarkable person. Her appearance was not particularly distinguished... She had enough personal eccentricities to fit into the pattern of English village life... She accepted her position as an old maid with that cheerful good humor and occasional irony... She attempted to counteract the inadequacy of the unmarried state by quiet, sensible and tolerant social work in the local community. She was liked by nearly everyone, though she was not afraid of making enemies where she knew that her broad but deeply felt religious principles were being opposed."

🔑 Definition — Characterization through direct statement: The writer explicitly describes a character's qualities, history, and personality rather than letting actions or speech imply them.

📌 Example: Miss Arkwright is described as unremarkable yet distinctive, tolerant yet principled, socially active yet self-deprecating. Her reported comments reveal her character: "hard work's the only excuse old maids like me have got for existing at all" and "if they've got any sense this time they'll keep the young fellows at home and put us useless old maids in the trenches."

4. Comparisons and Associations

Writers describe characters by comparing them to something else that creates an image, or by associating them with an idea or object that is significant. An example from Charles Dickens' David Copperfield describes Miss Murdstone:

"It was Miss Murdstone who arrived, and a gloomy-looking lady she was; dark, like her brother... with very heavy eyebrows, nearly meeting over her large nose... She brought with her two uncompromising hard black boxes, with her initials on the lids in hard brass nails. When she paid the coachman she took the money from a hard steel purse, and she kept the purse in a very jail of a bag which hung upon her arm by a heavy chain, and shut up like a bite. I had never... seen such a metallic lady altogether as Miss Murdstone was."

🔑 Definition — Characterization through comparison and association: Using metaphors, similes, or symbolic objects to link a character to qualities of something else (here, metal).

📌 Example: Words suggesting metal directly include hard black boxes, hard brass nails, hard steel purse, heavy chain, metallic lady. Words suggesting metal's characteristics include uncompromising, jail of a bag, shut up like a bite. This association is appropriate because Miss Murdstone is hard, cold, unyielding, and imprisoning in personality.

💡 Why this matters: The comparison is not decorative — every metallic object reinforces Miss Murdstone's unfeeling, restrictive nature.

5. Association with a Particular Point of View or Action

Characters can be easily and quickly identified by a repeated action, phrase, or viewpoint. From David Copperfield, Uriah Heep is remembered for being "ever so humble" and rubbing his hands together: "he frequently ground the palms against each other as if to squeeze them dry and warm, besides often wiping them, in a stealthy way, on his pocket handkerchief."

From Hard Times, Thomas Gradgrind is described as "A man of realities. A man of facts and calculations. A man who proceeds upon the principle that two and two are four, and nothing over... With a rule and a pair of scales, and the multiplication table always in his pocket, sir, ready to weight and measure any parcel of human nature."

🔑 Definition — Characterization through repeated identifying feature: A distinctive action, phrase, or perspective that becomes permanently associated with a character.

📌 Example: Words reinforcing Gradgrind as a man of facts include realities, facts, calculations, two and two are four, rule and a pair of scales, multiplication table, weight and measure, simple arithmetic. The word "sir" adds a tone of peremptory authority — he is someone who must be addressed formally and accepts it as his due.

6. Choice of Words and Picking Out a Particular Feature

Writers bring characters to life by selecting specific descriptive details and carefully chosen words. Examples from Edward Blishen's A Cackhanded War:

"'He was a tiny fellow, with a leathery white face under black hair, and tied to the case he'd brought were the most enormous gumboots I'd ever seen.'" "'Mrs Goss was a widow, a neat little woman of over seventy: and witchlike.'" "'He was a deeply depressed man, this farmer, who always wore a white coat and cloth cap, and was always peppered with a white-and-black bristle.'" "'He was a tall, silent, dark man, very gentle, who would tut over his machine as if it were some moody woman.'" "'On the strawstack was a boy: a short, stout boy with a kind of naked pertness about his eyes and a very runny nose.'"

🔑 Definition — Characterization through word choice and specific detail: Selecting one or two vivid, concrete features that define a character memorably.

Back to Practical Texts: Examples

The lecture shifts to how examples are introduced in academic and technical writing. Example markers include:

• For example, for instance, as an example, such as, like
• Examples of, an example of this, cases of, illustration of
• Shown by, exemplified by, illustrated by, seen in
• Namely (introduces specific items)
• N.B. (nota bene — note well)

Sample sentences:

1. "The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states that is, on or off; magnetized or unmagnetized."
2. "Computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations such as: addition subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation."
3. "The computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are two numbers equal? Is one number greater than another?"
4. "Computers can process information at extremely rapid rates; for example, they can solve certain arithmetic problems millions of times faster than a skilled mathematician."
5. "Using the very limited capabilities possessed by all computers, the task of producing a university payroll, for instance, can be done quite easily."

🔑 Definition — Explicit exemplification: Using specific marker words or phrases to signal that an example follows, making the relationship between the general statement and specific instance clear.

📌 Example: Sometimes markers follow the example, separated by commas. Not all texts present examples explicitly; some implicit exemplification occurs without marker words.

⭐ Key Takeaways

You must remember the five main methods of characterization: action, speech, direct statements, comparisons/associations, and association with a repeated point of view or action, plus the sixth method of word choice and specific detail. Each example from Dickens, Wodehouse, and Wilson demonstrates a distinct technique — Mrs. Gargery's harsh verbs, Jeeves's economical speech, Miss Murdstone's metallic associations, and Gradgrind's fact-obsessed identity. For technical writing, recognize explicit example markers (for example, such as, namely) and understand that some exemplification is implicit. The key skill is analyzing how word choice, not just content, builds character.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What six methods does a writer use to bring characters to life using only words?
2. How does Dickens' description of Mrs. Gargery cutting bread-and-butter reveal her character — what do words like "trenchant," "jammed," and "hewed" suggest?
3. What does Jeeves's economical speech in the Wodehouse passage reveal about his character and his attitude toward his master?
4. Why is the association of Miss Murdstone with metal objects (hard boxes, steel purse, heavy chain) appropriate to her character?
5. List at least five explicit markers that signal an example in technical writing, and give a sentence using one of them.

📘 Lecture 15 — Evaluating Texts: Interpreting Visual Data

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on two main skills: interpreting visual data (graphs, charts, tables, maps, and diagrams) and making comparisons in English. Understanding visuals is critical for accurate reading comprehension, while mastering comparative structures is essential for clear academic and professional communication.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with interpreting visual data including tables, graphs, and bar graphs, then moves to map reading and interpretation. The second half covers making comparisons through the formation of comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, including regular and irregular forms, and their use in sentences to show equivalence, non-equivalence, superlative, and parallel increase.

📝 Lecture Summary

Interpreting Visual Data

This section introduces various means of visual communication including graphs, charts, diagrams, tables, and maps. These are aids to help readers understand and interpret material. The lecture demonstrates how words and figures can be converted into visuals, and teaches accurate reading of these aids.

Table Example: The lecture presents retention rates from a lecture: after 24 hours, students forget 75% of information; after 48 hours, retention drops to 15%. However, if students review by noting key points, retention levels reach 70-85%.

Tables

A table gives numerical information at a glance in clear, compact columns. Tables are useful for quick reference but require careful reading.

How to read a table:

1. Read the title first
2. Check the footnote for additional information
3. Verify the source for reliability
4. Examine column headings and units (numbers, money, weights, percentages, dates, sex, etc.)
5. Read figures carefully and interpret accurately

🔑 Definition — Table: A visual representation that presents numerical information in organized columns for quick reference.

Table Exercise: A table from "Study Skills for Students of English" p. 173 shows causes of death in the United States from 1900 to 1977. Key findings:

• The annual death rate has been reduced by slightly less than half since 1900 (T)
• Heart disease has consistently been the major cause of death (T)
• The death rate for infants in 1977 was 10.7 percent (T)
• Typhoid fever has NOT been completely eliminated as a cause of death (F)
• The annual death rate for cancer was about 2½ times greater in 1977 than in 1900 (T)

Graphs

A graph illustrates a relationship between at least two things, one measured on a vertical axis and the other(s) on a horizontal axis.

🔑 Definition — Graph: A visual representation showing the relationship between variables, with one variable measured on the vertical axis and another on the horizontal axis.

Graph Exercise: A graph from "Study Skills for Students of English" p. 177 shows mean income by education level:

• Specific years are indicated on the horizontal axis, NOT vertical (F)
• The legend shows mean income, NOT how many men finished each school level (F)
• High school graduates earn more than elementary school graduates (T)
• College graduates earn the highest income (T)
• In 1956, the difference in mean income between elementary and high school graduates was 1,250 dollars
• In 1976, this difference became about 1,720 dollars
• A college graduate in 1961 earned about 10,000 dollars
• The mean income of a college graduate in 1966 was about 12,000 dollars
• Between 1961 and 1976, college graduate income increased by about 6,500 dollars

💡 Why this matters: Graphs allow for quick visual comparison of trends over time, making complex data patterns immediately visible.

Bar Graphs

A bar graph is similar to a line graph except that bars (extending from either the vertical or horizontal axis) are used instead of dots and lines.

🔑 Definition — Bar Graph: A graph that uses rectangular bars to represent data, with bar lengths proportional to the values they represent.

Bar Graph Exercise: A bar graph from "Study Skills for Students of English" p. 178 shows native speakers of major world languages:

• The graph shows speakers of all important languages (T)
• The number of speakers is shown on the horizontal axis (F)
• Numbers are indicated in millions, e.g., 100 means 100,000,000 (T)
• There are NOT twice as many English speakers as French speakers (F)
• Two languages are spoken by more than 300 million speakers (T)
• About 370,000,000 native English speakers exist
• German and Portuguese have about as many speakers as Arabic
• Mandarin is the Chinese dialect with the most speakers
• There are about twice as many Hindi speakers as Malay-Indonesian speakers
• Urdu ranks fifth in total number of speakers

Map Reading

The lecture includes interpretation of a map of Japan:

• Japan has four major islands: Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Hokkaido
• Hokkaido is the northernmost island
• Kyushu is the southernmost island
• Japan is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and three seas: Philippines Sea, Sea of Japan, East China Sea
• The Sea of Japan is to the west
• The Philippines Sea is to the southeast
• South Korea is the nearest country, approximately 150 km away
• Other nearby countries: Russia (300 km), North Korea (400 km)
• Six cities have populations of 1,000,000 or more: Osaka, Tokyo, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Yokohama
• Nagoya is approximately 390 km from Tokyo

Making Comparisons

1. Formation of Comparative and Superlative

One-syllable words: Add -er and -est

• Adjectives: new → newer → newest; old → older → oldest; big → bigger → biggest
• Adverbs: soon → sooner → soonest; late → later → latest

Three-or-more syllable words: Use more and most

• Adjectives: interesting → more interesting → most interesting; convenient → more convenient → most convenient; beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful
• Adverbs: easily → more easily → most easily; carefully → more carefully → most carefully

Two-syllable words: Some add -er/-est (especially those ending in -y, -ly, -ow, -le, -er), while others take more/most:

• Words ending in -y: happy → happier → happiest; funny → funnier → funniest
• Words ending in -ly: early → earlier → earliest; friendly → friendlier → friendliest
• Words ending in -ow: shallow → shallower → shallowest; narrow → narrower → narrowest
• Words ending in -le: able → abler → ablest; gentle → gentler → gentlest
• Words ending in -er: clever → cleverer → cleverest
• Two-syllable adverbs ending in -ly take more/most: quickly → more quickly → most quickly; slowly → more slowly → most slowly; badly → more badly → most badly

Remaining two-syllable words: take more/most

• careful → more careful → most careful
• careless → more careless → most careless
• boring → more boring → most boring
• awful → more awful → most awful
• complex → more complex → most complex

Flexible two-syllable adjectives: Can use either form

• common → commoner/more common → commonest/most common
• handsome → handsomer/more handsome → handsomest/most handsome
• polite → politer/more polite → politest/most polite
• quiet → quieter/more quiet → quietest/most quiet

Irregular comparisons: Use different stems

2. Use in Sentences

(a) Equivalence

Words showing equivalence (the same): as...as, similar to, the same as, is like, equal to, both, alike, each, either, all

Examples:

1. Third-generation computers can do a thousand times as many calculations as first-generation computers.
2. Microcomputers are as efficient as minicomputers.
3. The term processor is the same as central processing unit.
4. The digital computer is like a huge cash register.
5. An analog computer and a car speedometer are similar in that they continuously work out calculations.
6. A microcomputer can sometimes cost as much as a minicomputer.
7. Both minicomputers and microcomputers can have a memory of 32K bytes.
8. A digital computer can be compared to a large cash register.
9. All computers have the same basic characteristics.
10. The time it takes a computer to solve a problem can equal months of work for man.

(b) Non-equivalence

Words showing non-equivalence (not the same): not as...as, greater than, unequal, word + er than, not as much...as, unlike, more...than, neither...nor, not the same as, fewer...than, not as many...as, not all, less...than, not equal to

Examples:

1. Learning a computer language is not as difficult as it seems.
2. A mainframe is bigger and more expensive than a microcomputer.
3. For less than $10,000, you could have a very good microcomputer.
4. Ten years ago, there were fewer computers in use than today.
5. Neither minicomputers nor microcomputers are very flexible.
6. Unlike minicomputers, microcomputers are not very flexible.
7. An analog computer is not the same as a digital computer.
8. Not all businesses have computerized their accounting departments.

(c) The Superlative

Words showing superlative (one item compared with others): the word + est, the most + word, the least + word

Examples:

1. Computer technology is the fastest growing technology in the world today.
2. Digital computer programming is the most commonly used in data processing for business.
3. BASIC is probably the least difficult computer language to learn.

(d) Parallel Increase

Words showing parallel increase (two comparatives): the (word + er), the more + word; the (word + er), the less + word

Examples:

1. The bigger the computer, the more complex the operations it can do.
2. The smaller the problem, the less challenging it is to the computer programmer.

Exercise 1 Answers:

1. Speeds for performing decision making operations are comparable to those for arithmetic operations. → Equivalence
2. Even the most sophisticated computer, no matter how good it is, must be told what to do. → Superlative
3. A computer can perform similar operations thousands of times, without becoming bored... → Equivalence
4. ...computers can solve...problems millions of times faster than a skilled mathematician. → Non-equivalence
5. One of the most important reasons why computers are used so widely today... → Superlative
6. Finally a computer, unlike a human being, has no intuition. → Non-equivalence

Exercise 2 Answers (Microcomputers text, paragraph by paragraph):

⭐ Key Takeaways

Students must remember the five-step process for reading tables (title, footnote, source, column headings/units, figures) and understand that graphs show relationships between variables on vertical and horizontal axes. For making comparisons, master the four formation rules: one-syllable words add -er/-est, three-syllable words use more/most, two-syllable words follow patterns based on endings, and irregular forms must be memorized. In sentences, comparisons serve four functions: equivalence (as...as, similar to, like), non-equivalence (more/less than, unlike), superlative (most/least), and parallel increase (the + comparative, the + comparative). Visual data interpretation is essential for accurate reading comprehension, and comparative structures are critical for clear academic writing.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the five steps for accurately reading a table?
2. How do you form the comparative and superlative of a two-syllable adjective ending in -y?
3. What is the difference between a line graph and a bar graph?
4. List four words or constructions used to show equivalence and four used to show non-equivalence.
5. What does the parallel increase construction "the + comparative, the + comparative" indicate in a sentence?

📘 Lecture 16 — Reading: Evaluating Texts

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on advanced reading comprehension skills—specifically, evaluating texts by identifying the writer’s tone, distinguishing facts from opinions, and analyzing arguments. It matters because these skills enable readers to become critical, discerning consumers of information, capable of recognizing bias and faulty reasoning in academic and everyday materials.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining tone and providing practice in identifying different tones, including irony (situational and verbal). It then moves to argumentation, explaining how to distinguish a point from its supporting evidence. Finally, it introduces logical fallacies, categorizing them into two main types: fallacies that ignore the issue (changing the subject, circular reasoning, personal attack) and fallacies that overgeneralize or oversimplify (hasty generalization, false cause, false comparison, either-or fallacy), with exercises for each.

📝 Lecture Summary

Tone

Tone reflects the author’s attitude toward the subject. To find the tone of a paragraph, ask yourself what attitude is revealed by its words and phrases. The lecture provides five statements about a “shabby house” to illustrate different tones: sentimental, tolerant, bitter, optimistic, and humorous.

🔑 Definition — Irony: A tone where writing says one thing and means the opposite. Irony always involves discrepancy – something doesn’t quite fit – and takes two forms.

• (I) Situational irony: The discrepancy lies in the situation itself. You expect something, but something else happens. Example: A house is on fire, and you expect the firefighter to aim a water hose, but instead he aims a petrol hose. Another example: In William Inge’s play ‘A Social Event,’ a proud Hollywood couple is to be entertained, but their Afro-American maid has an invitation to a special event to which the couple has NOT been invited.
• (II) Verbal irony: Discrepancy between what is said and what is meant, usually the exact opposite or near opposite. Example: An eager cricket player looks out the window and sees rain. “Oh, great!” he says, meaning the opposite. Another example: After a terrible performance by an actor in a movie, someone might say, “Now that’s an actor who is sure to win the Best Actor Award for this year!”

Argument

A good argument involves making a point and then providing support (persuasive and logical evidence) to back it up. For example, the statement “My neighbors are inconsiderate” is the point. The supporting details would be: “They play loud music at night, their children play and scream loudly outside my house, and their dog barks all day long.”

💡 Why this matters: As a successful reader, you must learn to recognize both the point and the support for the point in any argument you read.

Fallacies

A fallacy is unsound reasoning. Fallacies are divided into two main types:

1. Fallacies that ignore the issue
2. Fallacies that overgeneralize/oversimplify issues

A. Fallacies That Ignore the Issue (3 types)

(a) Changing the Subject: The writer diverts the audience's attention from the true issue by presenting evidence irrelevant to the argument.

• Example: “The honorable member of the National Assembly is a capable leader. He has a busy family life and prays daily in the area mosque.” Mention of his family and religious life sidesteps the issue of how capable a leader he is.

(b) Circular Reasoning: The supporting reason is the same as the conclusion; the statement merely repeats itself without giving real reasons.

• Example: “Mr. Abid is a great science teacher because he is so wonderful at teaching.”

(c) Personal Attack: The issue under discussion is ignored, and the writer focuses attention on the opponent’s character.

• Example: “The Honorable Member of National Assembly views on the tax bill are not worthy of consideration. His father also held similar views when he was a member of the assembly.” This ignores the tax bill issue and concentrates on personal character.

B. Fallacies That Overgeneralize/Oversimplify Issues (4 types)

(a) Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

• Example: “The Iranians are a very stupid people as they have no talent for mathematics. Two Iranian boys took math course with me once, and they were at the bottom of the class.” Forming a conclusion about a whole nation on the basis of two examples is an illogical jump.

(b) False Cause: Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship between two events just because one event followed another, while ignoring other possible causes.

• Example: “The Atlas Tyre Company was more prosperous before Mr. Hamid joined it as chairman. Clearly, he is the cause of its decline.” Other causes (e.g., policies of the previous chairman, changed market conditions) could be responsible.

(c) False Comparison: Assuming that two things are more alike than they really are.

• Example: “In our village we leave our doors unlocked all the time, so I don’t think its necessary for you in the city to have locks on your front door.” The two situations (village vs. city) are not alike.

(d) Either-Or Fallacy: Offering only two choices when more actually exist.

• Example: “Those who oppose unrestricted speech are in reality in favor of censorship.” This ignores the possibility that a person can believe in free speech and also believe in laws that prohibit slander.

⭐ Key Takeaways

To be an effective critical reader, you must learn to identify the author’s tone, which reveals their attitude. You must also be able to distinguish a writer's main point from the supporting evidence in an argument. Finally, it is crucial to recognize common logical fallacies—like hasty generalizations, false cause, and personal attacks—so you are not misled by weak or faulty reasoning. Mastering these skills allows you to move beyond surface-level understanding to truly evaluate and judge the quality of any text you read.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the two forms of irony, and how do they differ?
2. In an argument, what is the difference between the “point” and the “support”?
3. Why is the statement “People should not ride the route no. 5 bus” a point, and what type of statements would serve as its support?
4. What is the defining characteristic of the “circular reasoning” fallacy?
5. Explain why the statement “Since persons under 18 are too young to vote, the voting age should not be lowered below age 18” is an example of circular reasoning.

📘 Lecture 17 — Reading: Cloze for Comprehension

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces the cloze procedure as a method for developing reading comprehension. It explains how deleting words at regular intervals requires readers to use context clues, make inferences, and engage actively with the text. The lecture covers multiple variations of cloze exercises, including standard, selected deletion, multiple choice, inflectional, phrase-based, and blank-free formats, with practical examples for each.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins by defining the cloze procedure and its benefits for fluent reading, then presents a standard cloze passage on the examination system. It covers selected deletions cloze with a narrative letter, multiple choice cloze on overpopulation, inflectional cloze focusing on grammatical endings, cloze with phrases for creativity, and the advanced cloze without blanks requiring insertion marking. Each type includes exercises with answers.

📝 Lecture Summary

What is the Cloze Procedure?

The cloze procedure involves selecting a passage from which words are deleted at regular intervals. The reader must fill in the missing words by concentrating on a wider proportion of the text. This requires making inferences and using context clues. The deleted words usually comprise grammatical and lexical words, and the student's choice of words reveals their understanding of the passage and grasp of the language.

🔑 Definition — Cloze Procedure: A reading comprehension technique where words are removed from a text at regular intervals, and the reader fills in the gaps using context and understanding.

📐 Benefits of Cloze: (1) Encourages fluent reading; (2) Requires using a range of reading skills; (3) Is thought-provoking as it trains exploration within a semantic field; (4) Trains the reader to look carefully at all structural clues.

💡 Why this matters: Cloze helps develop concentrated reading, going beyond the immediate sentence for meaning, skimming to recap, and scanning for unspecified information to predict.

📌 Example (Standard Cloze - Exercise 1): Passage about the examination system with blanks at regular intervals. Answer key shows appropriate words: "What has to be learnt 1 is strictly laid down by 2 the syllabus, so the student 3 does/learns only what is prescribed."

Selected Deletions Cloze

In this variation, blanks are not after a fixed number of words but are selected by the teacher. The first two sentences and the last sentence typically have no gaps to help understand overall meaning. Each gap stands for just ONE word that is missing, and a word can only be accepted if it fits the context without changing the meaning of the passage.

🔑 Definition — Selected Deletions Cloze: A cloze variation where the deletion points are chosen by the instructor rather than occurring at regular intervals.

📌 Example (Exercise 3): A letter from a grandmother describing a trip to the circus with her grandchildren. Sample answers: "I 1 spend as much time as I can... Last week I 2 took Mark and Michelle... 3 They'd never been to one before..."

Multiple Choice Cloze

Here, words are provided and the student must choose and write in each blank the word that belongs there, selecting from given options.

🔑 Definition — Multiple Choice Cloze: A cloze variation where options are provided for each blank, and the student selects the correct word.

📌 Example (Exercise 4): Passage on overpopulation with options. "The world's exploding population signals/predicts, even more growing pains ahead for already crowded areas. A new United Nations study signals/forecasts that by the year 2000/2015..."

Inflectional Cloze

Here, the inflectional endings of words are deleted—e.g., plural endings of nouns, past form of regular verbs. This type is good for practicing grammar in a connected passage.

🔑 Definition — Inflectional Cloze: A cloze variation where grammatical inflections (endings) are removed, requiring the reader to supply correct grammatical forms.

📌 Example (Exercise 5): "Imagine a machine able to wax the car [car → car], wash the dishes [dish → dishes] and iron the clothes [cloth → clothes]... perform several other jobs [job → jobs]."

Cloze with Phrases

This type requires phrases instead of single words to fill in blanks that occur at random. It is a more difficult exercise used for developing creativity in language use.

🔑 Definition — Cloze with Phrases: A cloze variation where blanks must be filled with word groups or phrases rather than single words.

📌 Example (Exercise 6): "Oliver is a film about an orphan 1 [who has no parents] ... The story 2 [was written by] Charles Dickens... 7 [There] he meets the villain, Bill Sykes..."

Cloze without Blanks

This is an advanced level exercise. A word is omitted from each line/sentence without a blank marked on the page. The student must first mark the place where the word has been omitted with a stroke (/), and then write the omitted word in the right-hand margin.

🔑 Definition — Cloze without Blanks: An advanced cloze variation where words are omitted without visible blanks, requiring the student to identify and mark the omission location.

📌 Example (Exercise 7): "A robot is a machine designed to do tasks usually / by people." → Margin: "done". "Robots already do / jobs." → Margin: "many". "They do dangerous work 2**/**" → Margin: "such" [as handling explosives].

⭐ Key Takeaways

The cloze procedure is fundamentally a cognitive/mental task requiring completion of meaning based on understanding and reason, involving active reader-text interaction to predict missing words using context clues. There are at least seven distinct variations: standard cloze (regular intervals), selected deletions (teacher-chosen gaps), multiple choice (options provided), inflectional (grammatical endings removed), phrase-based (multi-word answers), and blank-free (advanced self-identification). Each variation tests different skills—grammar, vocabulary, inference, or creativity—and all require the reader to look beyond immediate sentences. A word can only be accepted if it fits the context without changing meaning, making cloze exercises a guessing game of "informed guesses" rather than wild speculation. The standard cloze deletes words at fixed intervals (e.g., every 5th or 7th word), while selected deletions allow more flexibility in targeting specific language features.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the fundamental difference between standard cloze and selected deletions cloze?
2. Why must the first two sentences and last sentence be left intact in some cloze passages?
3. In multiple choice cloze, how does the available word bank help or limit the student's choices?
4. What specific grammatical skills does inflectional cloze primarily test?
5. In cloze without blanks, what two actions must the student perform for each omitted word?

📘 Lecture 18 — Reading: Skimming and Scanning

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on developing reading comprehension skills through the analysis of a technical text about primary and secondary computer memory. Students practice identifying main ideas, locating specific information, understanding contextual references, and recognizing word forms, all while learning about computer memory systems.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers a reading passage on primary and secondary memory in computers, followed by exercises on main idea identification, true/false statement verification, information location by paragraph reference, contextual reference analysis, synonym and antonym identification, word form completion, content review matching, and understanding deductive versus inductive presentation of information with examples.

📝 Lecture Summary

[Reading: Skimming and Scanning]

This lesson follows an established pattern where a reading text about primary and secondary computer memory is presented. Students listen carefully as the text is read and then complete exercises that follow the reading passage.

The reading passage titled "Primary and Secondary Memory" explains that the term 'memory' usually refers to the internal storage locations of a computer. It is also called real storage or primary memory, expressed as quantities of K (where each K equals 1,024 bytes, and each byte equals 8 bits). Primary memory is closely associated with the CPU because it stores programs and data temporarily, making them immediately available for processing. Two things needed for processing are random access (any part of memory can be read equally quickly) and speed, made possible by a system of addresses in primary memory where storage locations are like tiny compartments with fixed addresses.

The information present in these compartments is called the contents of the memory. Most primary memory is costly and used transiently — a program or parts of it stay in internal storage while executing. However, for mini and micro applications performing a dedicated function, this differs. Since computers must process vast quantities of data, secondary memory technologies have been developed.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary memory is fundamental to computer architecture. Primary memory provides fast, temporary storage for active programs, while secondary memory offers larger, permanent storage at lower cost.

[Exercises on the reading text]

The text presents several exercises to develop reading skills:

1. Main Idea: Students must identify which statement best expresses the main idea. The correct answer is statement 1: "There are two types of memory: primary and secondary." Statements 2 and 3 are incorrect because the text does not state that primary memory is more important, nor that secondary memory is unimportant.

2. Understanding the Passage (S/NS): Students indicate whether ideas were stated (S) or not stated (NS) in the text. Key findings include:

• The term 'memory' can be expressed in other ways — S
• Computers are often advertised according to their memory capacity — S
• The CPU can easily access information from internal storage — S
• Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory — S
• There are two types of secondary memory device — S
• Information stored on magnetic disk can be retrieved faster than from tape — S

3. Locating Information: Students find paragraph references for specific ideas. For example:

• Speed and random access (Para 2)
• Random-access devices are more efficient than sequential devices (Para 4)
• CPU and primary memory work closely together (Para 2)
• Virtual storage increases memory capacity (Para 4)
• Real storage, internal storage, and primary memory are the same (Para 1)

[Contextual Reference]

Students identify what words in bold typeface refer to in the text:

1. "It is also called" — memory
2. "depending on their" — memories/computers
3. "Thus making them" — memories/computers
4. "The former means that" — random access
5. "Where the storage" — primary memory
6. "Each having its own" — compartment
7. "In that they do not" — address of houses
8. "Where to find them" — addresses
9. "Whatever must go there" — compartments
10. "Or parts of it" — program

[Understanding Words]

Students find synonyms from the text:

• Represented → expressed
• Erases → wipes out
• Carried out → executed
• Before → preceding
• Very much → considerably

Students also find antonyms:

• Latter → former
• Disallow → permit
• Unnecessary → required
• Go through → bypass
• Imaginary → real

[Word Forms]

Students choose appropriate word forms to complete sentences:

1. Expression, expressive, express, expressed:

• "Information sent via computer is faster than using the express system"
• "An expression such as 'He or she has a computer of a brain'"
• "Computers understand commands expressed in the form of 0 and 1"

2. Equality, equal, equally, equalize:

• "The symbol # means that two things are not equal"
• "A microcomputer doesn't equal a minicomputer in flexibility"
• "The two computer languages Pascal and PL1 are equally difficult"

3. Consideration, consider, considerable, considerably:

• "There is a considerable difference between written and spoken English"
• "It is important to consider the capabilities and limitations"
• "New printers can print results considerably faster"

4. Design, designed, designation, designer, designing:

• "Computer designers are faced with a more challenging job"
• "Computers are designed to process information accurately"
• "Computer architects are constantly trying to improve on the design"

5. Advertisement, advertise, advertised:

• "Many computer-related jobs advertised in The New York Times"
• "The Computers Center will soon advertise for more operators"
• "Career opportunities can be found in the advertisement section"

[Content Review]

Students match column A words with column B statements:

• d Internal storage → refers to memory contained in the storage locations
• f Real storage → sometimes called primary memory
• a Random access → means any part of memory can be read equally quickly
• c Addresses → are storage locations in internal storage
• b Contents → the information contained in the storage locations
• g Sequential access → information must be read from secondary memory devices in a fixed pattern
• e Virtual storage → hooking up secondary memory devices onto memory to increase their capacity

[Focus Review: Examples and Information Presentation]

This section teaches students to differentiate between an idea and its illustration with examples. Writers often use connectives like "for example" and "such as" to introduce examples. Information can be presented in two ways:

• Deductively: a generalization is given first, then examples support it
• Inductively: examples are provided first, then a generalization is made

Information can also show reinforcement or similarity to what was said before:

• Reinforcement: "In addition to their speed, computers are accurate..." (adding supporting information)
• Similarity: "Microcomputers can have a storage capacity of up to 32k, likewise minicomputers" (showing comparable features)

💡 Why this matters: Recognizing how authors organize information (deductive vs. inductive) and signal relationships (reinforcement, similarity, examples) helps readers understand text structure and extract information more efficiently.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Primary memory (also called real storage or internal storage) stores programs and data temporarily for immediate CPU processing, using an address system for random access. Secondary memory devices fall into two categories: sequential devices like magnetic tape (low cost but slow access) and random-access devices like magnetic disk (faster but more expensive). Virtual storage extends primary memory capacity by hooking up disks as additional storage. The lecture emphasizes reading comprehension strategies including identifying main ideas, locating specific information, understanding contextual references, recognizing synonyms and antonyms, and mastering proper word forms. Understanding deductive versus inductive presentation of information and connectives for examples is crucial for academic reading.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What is the difference between sequential devices and random-access devices in secondary memory?
2. How does the address system in primary memory enable random access?
3. What is virtual storage, and how does it increase memory capacity?
4. What is the difference between deductive and inductive presentation of information?
5. What does the word "transiently" mean in the context of primary memory usage?

📘 Lecture 19 — Reading: Scanning and Language Functions

📖 Overview: This lecture examines the three main types of computer memory—core, semiconductor (chip), and bubble memory—tracing their historical development, composition, and characteristics. It explains why understanding memory types matters for grasping how computers store and process information, and also introduces how language functions like definitions and explanations operate in English technical texts.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture begins with a reading passage on three types of computer memory: core memory (ferrite rings on wire grids), semiconductor memory (integrated circuits on silicon chips), and bubble memory (magnetic film technology). It then provides comprehension exercises, scanning for information, vocabulary and content review activities, and finally a detailed section on how language functions—specifically giving definitions and explanations—operate in English, including various definition patterns and identification exercises.

📝 Lecture Summary

Types of memory

A computer’s ability to store information in its memory for processing is one of its most important characteristics. Not all computers have the same type of memory. Three types are discussed: core memory, semiconductor memory (or chip), and bubble memory.

The memory of the first computers was made of a grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each intersection there was a small ferrite ring called a core (hence the name “core memory”) capable of being either magnetized or demagnetized. Every intersection had its unique address. When an electrical current passed through the wires, magnetized and unmagnetized cores were identified by their addresses.

Each core represented a binary digit of either 0 or 1, depending on its state. Early computers had a capacity of around 80,000 bits; modern computers have millions of bits. This became possible due to transistors and advances in miniaturized circuitry, reducing mainframes in size and cost. Core memory dominated the market throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and up to the mid-1970s.

🔑 Definition — Core memory: A type of computer memory made of small ferrite rings (cores) at wire intersections, each capable of being magnetized or demagnetized to represent binary digits. 📌 Example: Early computers with core memory had a capacity of around 80,000 bits, with each core representing either 0 or 1.

In the 1970s, a further development revolutionized computers: the ability to etch thousands of integrated circuits onto a tiny piece (chip) of silicon, a non-metallic element with semiconductor characteristics. Chips have thousands of identical circuits, each storing one bit. Because chips are very small, circuits can be faster. Moreover, component size can be considerably reduced, leading to the introduction of minis and micros. Computers became smaller, faster, and cheaper. However, there is one problem: when power is removed, information in semiconductor memory is lost—unlike core memory, which retains information during power failure.

🔑 Definition — Semiconductor memory (chip): Memory etched as integrated circuits onto a tiny piece of silicon; each circuit stores one bit, but data is lost when power is removed. 💡 Why this matters: Semiconductor memory enabled the creation of smaller, cheaper, and faster computers (minis and micros), but its volatility requires backup power or alternative storage.

Another development is bubble memory. This concept involves creating a thin film of metallic alloys over the memory board. When magnetized, the film produces magnetic bubbles, the presence or absence of which represents one bit of information. These bubbles are extremely tiny, about 0.1 micrometers in diameter. Therefore, magnetic bubble memory can store information at a greater density than existing memories, making it suitable for micros. Bubble memories are not expensive, consume little power, are small in size, and highly reliable. Research in this field continues.

🔑 Definition — Bubble memory: Memory created from a thin film of metallic alloys that, when magnetized, produces magnetic bubbles (each representing one bit); offers high density, low power consumption, and reliability.

Main idea: 1

The statement that does not express the main idea: Option 3 ("Bubble memory is the latest development in computer memory") is too narrow—the text covers three types, not just bubble memory.

Understanding the passage

True/False statements with corrections:

1. T — The most important function of a computer is to hold information in its memory to process it.
2. T — All computers have the same kind of memory. (Correction: Not all computers have the same type of memory.)
3. F — Semiconductor memory was developed after core memory and before bubble memory. (Correction: Core memory came first, then semiconductor, then bubble.)
4. T — Core memory uses small metal rings which can be magnetized or unmagnetized.
5. T — The state of the core can be represented by either 0 or 1.
6. T — Early computer memories had less storage capacity than newer ones.
7. F — A transistor and a chip are the same kind of device. (Correction: They are different; a chip contains many circuits, transistors are components.)
8. T — The development of chips makes it possible for minicomputers and microcomputers to be invented.
9. T — Bubble memory is smaller than a chip.
10. F — Bubble memory doesn’t have very many advantages. (Correction: Bubble memories have many advantages—inexpensive, low power, small, reliable.)

Locating information

1. First there is core memory. — Para 1
2. Further to this development, chips evolved. — Para 3
3. There are three types of memory board. — Para 1
4. This consists of producing a thin film over a memory board. — Para 4
5. Then semiconductor memory was developed. — Para 3
6. There is still a lot to learn about this process. — Para 4
7. This is made up of thin wires and rings. — Para 2
8. Finally, bubble memory was invented. — Para 4

Contextual reference

1. “Long enough to process it” (line 3) — information
2. “Where the wires crossed” (line 7) — the intersection
3. “Which was capable of being” (line 9) — the core / ferrite ring
4. “By their respective addresses” (line 12) — the cores
5. “This has been made possible” (line 16) — the increase in memory capacity
6. “Which revolutionized the computer field” (line 21) — the ability to etch integrated circuits onto a chip
7. “Each one capable of storing one bit” (line 25) — each circuit / each integrated circuit
8. “Of the circuits etched on it” (line 26) — the chip
9. “It produces magnetic bubbles” (line 37) — the film / magnetized film
10. “Of which represents one bit” (line 38) — the presence or absence of magnetic bubbles

Understanding words

Synonyms:

1. Said — mentioned
2. Own — respective
3. Progress — advances
4. Keeping — retaining
5. Appropriate — suitable

Antonyms: 6. Neither…nor — either…or 7. Bypassed — passed through 8. Increased — reduced 9. Not producing — creating 10. Don’t use up — consume

Words forms

1. alteration, alter, altered
   • a. make alteration to it
   • b. can alter its results
   • c. has altered the workload
2. electricity, electric, electrical, electrically
   • a. A lot of electricity is needed
   • b. invented the electric light bulb
   • c. electrical engineers
3. reduction, reduce, reduced
   • a. has reduced the workload
   • b. a great reduction in consumption
4. creation, create, created, creative
   • a. a creative mind
   • b. a new creation in technology
   • c. have created few opportunities for fraud

Content review

Table completion:

Focus review — Time sequence

Focus I: Adding information

1. In the 1970s there was a further development... (Para 3)
2. Moreover, the size of the components can be reduced... (Para 3)
3. Another development in the field of computer memories is bubble memory. (Para 4)

Focus J: Giving an explanation or a definition

In technical texts, authors often give definitions to new or unfamiliar terms. Definitions may be explicit (using markers like “means,” “is taken to be,” “denotes,” “refers to,” “is defined as,” “in other words,” “that is”) or implicit.

Methods of defining:

1. Explicit markers: “The term computer refers to the processor plus the internal memory.”
2. X is/are Y pattern: “A computer is an electronic device.”
3. X is/are Y + distinguishing characteristics: “A computer is an electronic device which processes information.”
4. Two nouns in apposition (separated by commas): “Computers, electronic devices for processing information, are now used everywhere.”

Relative pronouns: who/that for people, when for time, where for place, that/which for things.

Exercise 1 — Analysis of definitions: A definition includes three parts: the term, the group it belongs to, and the characteristics that distinguish it.

1. A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores.
2. An abacus is a bead frame in which the beads are moved from left to right.
3. Input is the information presented to the computer.
4. The term ‘computer’ includes those parts of hardware in which calculations and other data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed internal memory in which data and calculations are stored during actual execution of programs.
5. A ‘system’ is a good mixture of integrated parts working together to form a useful whole.
6. Large computer systems, or mainframes, as they are referred to, are those computer systems found in computer installations processing immense amounts of data.
7. A minicomputer is generally understood to refer to a computer whose mainframe is physically small, has a fixed word length between 8 and 32 bits, and costs less than $100,000 for the central processor.

⭐ Key Takeaways

A student must remember that computer memory evolved through three main types: core memory (ferrite rings on wire grids, non-volatile, dominant from 1950s-1970s), semiconductor memory (integrated circuits on silicon chips, volatile but smaller/faster/cheaper, enabling minis and micros), and bubble memory (magnetic film, high density, low power, reliable, with ongoing research). The lecture also teaches that technical definitions always include the term, its group, and its distinguishing characteristics, and can be expressed using explicit markers, the “X is Y” pattern, relative clauses, or apposition. For the exam, be prepared to identify definition components, complete memory comparison tables, and understand time sequence markers like “whereas,” “moreover,” and “another.”

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three types of computer memory discussed in this lecture, and in what chronological order were they developed?
2. What is the key disadvantage of semiconductor memory compared to core memory?
3. How many bits could early core memory computers store, and what technology enabled the increase to millions of bits?
4. What are the three required parts of a formal definition, and give an example using “bubble memory.”
5. What are two different methods for giving definitions in English technical writing?

📘 Lecture 20 — Classifying, Cause and Effect Relationship

📖 Overview: This lecture focuses on two key academic skills: understanding the structured process of problem-solving in computing and mastering the language of classification and cause-effect relationships in English. It explains how programmers systematically solve problems through a defined sequence of steps, then teaches how to express logical relationships between ideas—crucial for technical writing and comprehension.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture covers six detailed steps of problem-solving in programming: defining the problem, formulating an algorithm/flowchart, translating into a computer program, keypunching, testing, and running the complete job. It then explores cause-and-effect relationships in texts with linguistic markers, followed by a comprehensive analysis of classifying language—including expressions for moving from general to specific and from specific to general—with examples related to computer hardware components like the CPU, memory, and input/output devices.

📝 Lecture Summary

Steps in Problem Solving

The lecture explains that a computer is merely a machine that executes procedures given by a programmer, so the programmer is the true problem-solver. Problem-solving requires following a specific, logical sequence of steps. The first and fundamental step is to define the problem clearly. The programmer must determine generally how to approach the solution, asking "Do I understand the problem?". Problems vary in difficulty—some are easy, while others require months of study.

🔑 Definition — Algorithm: A straightforward sequence of steps of instructions used to solve the problem. 📐 Formula/Definition: An algorithm can be described by a flowchart, which is stated either as a sequence of precise sentences or as a block diagram. A block diagram is a diagrammatic representation showing the sequence of events, with relationships shown by connecting arrows. 📌 Example: A block diagram can visually represent if a process must be repeated or if alternative routes can be taken, using arrows to connect different decision points.

The third step is to translate the algorithm/flowchart into a computer program. The programmer writes detailed instructions for the computer using one of many computer languages, following the exact sequence of the flowchart. Programs are usually written on coding sheets, which have a specific format drawn on them.

In step four, the programmer must keypunch the program (or give coding sheets to a keypunch operator). The program is either punched on cards or entered into the computer at a terminal with a visual display unit.

Step five involves testing the program. The computer operator puts the deck of cards in the card reader and presses 'read' to transfer information to the computer's memory. A printout then shows if the program works or if it has errors (called bugs). If using a terminal, with a few commands the program can be stored in memory and a printout obtained.

The final step is to add the data to the program and complete the run. The computer performs the necessary calculations, following instructions to the minutest details. The lecture concludes that the computer is a robot—it doesn't think, but simply does what it is told.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding these steps distinguishes between the machine's mechanical execution and the human's creative problem-solving, emphasizing that errors originate from programmers, not computers.

Understanding the Passage (Comprehension Check)

Key true/false corrections from the exercises clarify critical points: The computer does not solve problems—the programmer does (False). All problems are not equally difficult (False). An algorithm is indeed a sequence of instructions (True). The most important part of problem-solving is formulating the algorithm, not just defining the problem (False). Block diagrams do show relationships via arrows (False). Coding sheets are used for writing programs (True). Punched cards are not the only way to transfer programs (False—terminals also work). Without data, the computer cannot perform calculations (True). It is good practice to test the program before adding data (True). A computer is not capable of thinking (False).

Focus On: Cause and Effect/Result

The lecture identifies cause-effect/result markers in sentences from the problem-solving text. In the sentence "If the programmer is using a terminal instead of cards to enter his instructions, he can, with the aid of a few commands, store the program in the memory of the computer and get a printout," the cause (the condition/if-clause) is the programmer using a terminal; the effect/result is the ability to store the program and get a printout. The marker "If" signals this relationship.

In "The computer will follow the instructions in the program to the minutest details. Therefore, one can say that the computer is a robot," the cause is the computer following instructions exactly; the effect/result is the conclusion that the computer is a robot. The marker "Therefore" signals this logical conclusion.

Classifying

Classification is defined as separating objects from one another. The simplest classification divides things into groups that share characteristics and those that do not (e.g., fish and birds are not in the same class as trees). Classification usually goes from general to specific and is essential for making sense of our surroundings. It is a process of bringing order out of confusion by breaking down a general topic into related parts logically. Outlining is closely related to classification because it organizes information logically.

1. From General to Specific: When focusing on a high-level category and describing its parts, the following expressions are used (usually with singular main verbs):

• is / is made up of / can be divided into / is composed of / comprises / has / includes / consists of

📌 Example: The CPU is divided into three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logical unit, and memory. (Also correct: The CPU has/includes/is made up of/is composed of/consists of three parts...)

2. From Specific to General: When describing what smaller components make when put together, the following expressions are used (with plural verbs):

• are...of / constitute / make up / form / may be / can be

📌 Example: The control unit, the arithmetic-logical unit, and memory are the three parts of the CPU. (Also correct: ...are the three parts that make up/form/constitute the CPU. / ...together are classified as the CPU.)

🔑 Important Note: The active/passive pairs "made up of" and "make up" are not interchangeable. "The CPU is made up of the control unit..." (general to specific) is correct. "The CPU makes up the control unit..." is incorrect. "The control unit...are made up of the CPU" is also incorrect.

Computer System Classification Exercise

The lecture applies classification language to computer hardware. A computer has four basic components: input, processor, memory, and output. The CPU consists of two parts: the control unit (directs and controls signals/commands) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) (performs arithmetic and decision-making operations). The control unit is made up of a register, a decoder, a counter, and a clock. The ALU is composed of registers, a binary adder, and circuitry (which compares information and makes decisions).

Internal memory or primary memory refers to storage inside the computer. Secondary memory refers to storage in peripherals. Primary memory can be divided into three types: core, chip, and bubble. Secondary memory may be grouped as sequential (tape) or random access (disk).

Input devices can be a card reader, tape drive, disk drive, or terminal—they enter information into the computer. After processing, output devices display results on a printer or terminal, or store them on tape/disk for future use.

⭐ Key Takeaways

Mastering the six-step problem-solving sequence—from defining the problem to running the complete job—is essential for understanding how programmers and computers interact. The most critical concepts to remember are that the programmer, not the computer, solves problems, and that formulating the algorithm is the most important and time-consuming step. For language skills, you must be able to identify cause-effect markers (like "if" and "therefore") in technical texts. Equally vital is distinguishing between general-to-specific classification (using singular verbs with "consists of," "is divided into") and specific-to-general classification (using plural verbs with "make up," "constitute"), paying careful attention to non-interchangeable pairs like "made up of" vs. "make up." Finally, you should be able to classify computer system components (CPU parts, memory types, input/output devices) using these precise linguistic structures.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. List the six steps of problem-solving in programming and identify which step the lecture describes as "the most important part of problem solving."
2. What is the difference between an algorithm and a flowchart? How are they related in the problem-solving process?
3. In the classification sentence "The control unit, the arithmetic-logical unit, and memory make up the CPU," is this an example of general-to-specific or specific-to-general classification? What verb form signals this?
4. Why is "The CPU makes up the control unit, the arithmetic-logical unit, and memory" incorrect? Explain the grammatical rule violated.
5. What are the three types of primary memory mentioned in the lecture, and how does secondary memory differ in classification (sequential vs. random access)?

📘 Lecture 21 — Reading: Presenting Information Graphically

📖 Overview: This lecture introduces flowcharting as a fundamental step in programming that visually represents the logical path a computer follows when executing a program. It covers the purpose of flowcharts, the standard symbols used, methods of creating them, and the importance of program documentation. Understanding flowcharts is critical because they reveal a programmer's logical and analytical ability before any code is written.

🗂️ Topics Covered

The lecture explains what flowcharting is and why it matters in programming, describing two ways to create flowcharts (freehand and template-based). It defines five essential flowcharting symbols: the terminal symbol, input/output symbol, processing symbol, decision symbol, and flow arrows. The concept of program documentation is explained alongside the relationship between flowcharts and actual programs. The lecture concludes with comprehensive exercises on main ideas, true/false comprehension, locating information, contextual reference, vocabulary, word forms, content review, cause and effect relationships, and making predictions.

📝 Lecture Summary

Reading: Presenting Information Graphically

Flowcharting is one of the steps in programming that indicates the logical path the computer will follow in executing a program. It is a drawing very much like a road map. Flowcharting is not restricted to the preparation of programs in a particular language and should be done for each major problem before writing the program is attempted.

If the finished program does not run as it should, the errors are more easily detected on the flowchart than in the maze of words, characters, and numbers that make up the computer program. In order to develop a flowchart successfully, a programmer should be aware of the sequence of steps needed to obtain a correct solution to a problem.

There are two ways of making a flowchart: the freehand version and the neater, more readable version using a template (a sheet of plastic with all the flowcharting symbols cut into it). The freehand version is satisfactory if the flowchart is not intended to be kept as a permanent record.

🔑 Definition — Flowchart: A diagrammatic representation of the sequence of steps needed to solve a problem, showing the logical path the computer will follow in executing a program.

The following symbols should be used for uniformity:

The first and last symbol is the terminal symbol which indicates the beginning or the end of a program. The word 'START' must be inserted inside the figure if it is the beginning of the program and 'STOP' if it is the end of the program.

The figure in the form of a parallelogram is used as an input/output symbol. It indicates that something is either brought to or taken from the program.

The rectangular symbol stands for processing and indicates a place in the program where action is taken.

To indicate that a decision has to be made, the diamond shaped symbol is used. The decision is usually in the form of a question that must be answered by either 'yes' or 'no'.

Finally, the arrows are used to show the flow or direction in which the different actions in the program are performed.

💡 Why this matters: These symbols are the universal language of flowcharting. Every programmer must memorize them because they allow anyone to read and understand a program's logic regardless of the programming language used.

🔑 Definition — Program Documentation: The detailed written record of a program including a copy of the flowchart, the program itself, and instructions for its use and interpretation.

A flowchart is not a program, but only a step in the preparation of a program, and is used in determining how to set up and write the program. If the problem is not understood, neither the flowchart nor the program can be done correctly. It is possible for two programmers working separately to write programs to solve the same problem and come up with flowcharts and programs that may be altogether different.

After a program has been worked out, it is usually written down and kept with a copy of the flowchart along with detailed instructions for the use and interpretation of the program. This procedure is part of what is referred to as program documentation. If documentation isn't available, it is always possible to work backwards and make a flowchart from an application program.

Flowcharting is one of the first things a student programmer is taught because a flowchart shows how a person thinks about a problem. It is through this that a new programmer reveals his or her logical and analytical ability, which is a must in programming.

🔑 Definition — Template: A sheet of plastic with all the flowcharting symbols cut into it, used for creating neat and readable flowcharts.

Exercises

1. Main Idea: Which statement expresses the main idea of the text? The correct answer is: Flowcharting is a basic step in programming. (It encompasses the entire purpose of the lecture, while the other choices are too narrow or specific.)

2. Understanding the Passage (True/False):

1. True — A good flowchart takes into account the steps which are necessary to solve the problem.
2. False — Correction: It is possible to draw a flowchart without using a template (using freehand method).
3. False — Correction: There is more than one possible flowchart for every problem.
4. True — Every programmer must learn flowcharting and realize its importance.
5. False — Correction: The method of flowcharting does not depend on the programming language being used.
6. True — Flowcharts show the logic one has to follow to solve a problem.
7. True — Documenting a program is essential in explaining what the program is supposed to do.
8. False — Correction: If the flowchart is correct, the program will not necessarily work (errors can still exist in the code).
9. True — Each symbol in flowcharting has a specific meaning.
10. False — Correction: Flowcharts can show both processes and decisions.

3. Locating Information: The answers with paragraph references indicate where in the text the information is found.

4. Contextual Reference:

1. "It" (line 10) refers to: the program
2. "The former version" (line 16) refers to: the freehand version
3. "This" (line 18) refers to: graphic jotting down of outlines
4. "The latter method" (line 20) refers to: the neater, more readable version using a template
5. "It" (line 21) refers to: the sheet of plastic used as a template
6. "Which" (line 23) refers to: the terminal symbol
7. "It" (line 27) refers to: the parallelogram figure (input/output symbol)
8. "That" (line 40) refers to: flowcharts and programs
9. "The original one" (line 48) refers to: the flowchart
10. "Which" (line 53) refers to: logical and analytical ability

5. Understanding Words (Synonyms):

1. Route (line 6) → path
2. Try (line 9) → attempt
3. Answer (line 14) → solution
4. Put in (line 25) → inserted
5. Show (line 52) → reveals

Antonyms: 6. Unlimited (line 7) → restricted 7. Undiscovered (line 11) → detected 8. Temporary (line 19) → permanent 9. Inaccessible (line 45) → available 10. Illogical (line 53) → logical

6. Word Forms:

1. a. involving, b. involves, c. involvement
2. a. correct, b. correct, c. corrected
3. a. Processing, b. process, c. processed
4. a. Perform, b. performed, c. performance
5. a. Documenting, b. documentation, c. documented

7a. Content Review (Glossary):

1. The information describing what a program can do and what the results mean is referred to as documentation.
2. It is advisable to test the program without data before executing it.
3. A piece of plastic with different shapes used for flowcharting is called a template.
4. Data used as input must be indicated with a parallelogram.
5. The symbol which marks the beginning and end of a program is called the terminal symbol.

7b. Content Review (Flowchart Connectives): In calculating an employee's salary, a computer must go through a number of operations in a logical manner. First it must read the number of hours worked and the rate of pay for each hour worked. Next it must calculate the gross salary; that is multiply the hours worked by the rate of pay for each hour worked. Before doing these two operations it must find out whether the employee has worked overtime or not. (Note: The paragraph continues with additional connectives as per the original exercise.)

8. Focus Review (Cause and Effect):

• Cause: If the finished program does not run as it should → Effect: The errors are more easily detected on the flowchart
• Cause: If the flowchart is not intended to be kept as a permanent record → Effect: The freehand version is quite satisfactory
• Cause: If a permanent, neater and more readable flowchart is needed → Effect: The latter method (template) is used
• Cause: If it is the beginning of the program → Effect: The word 'START' must be inserted inside the terminal symbol
• Cause: If it is the end of the program → Effect: 'STOP' must be inserted inside the terminal symbol
• Cause: If the problem is not understood → Effect: Neither the flowchart nor the program can be done correctly
• Cause: If documentation isn't available → Effect: It is always possible to work backwards and make a flowchart from an application program
• Cause: Because a flowchart shows how a person thinks about a problem → Effect: Flowcharting is one of the first things a student programmer is taught

Making Predictions:

Predictions are statements about a particular subject related to a prior condition being fulfilled. They are special kinds of inference in which we tell in advance what we think will happen in the future. Predictions can be expressed at different levels of certainty:

1. Certainly (100%): Will (definitely, certainly), Certain, sure, Without a doubt
2. Probability (75%-90%): Probable/probably (75%), Likely (75%), Most/highly probable/likely (90%)
3. Possibility: May (not), might (not), can, could, possible, possibly, perhaps
4. Improbability (25%-10%): Improbable, unlikely (25%), Doubtful/questionable (25%), Most/highly improbable/unlikely (10%)
5. Impossibility (0%): Cannot, could not, not possible, impossible

In a condition-prediction relationship, the statement of condition is preceded by 'if'. The verb tenses are important: the statement of condition is made in the present and relates to events of the prediction which will happen in the future.

Exercise (Identifying Condition and Prediction):

1. Condition: if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology → Prediction: a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today would take a few seconds
2. Condition: unless some means of speeding up the analyses of census data were found → Prediction: it would take more than ten years to complete the job
3. Condition: If the hammer in train printers hits a little early or late → Prediction: the character will appear slightly to the right of its proper position
4. Condition: if it weren't for microminiaturization → Prediction: Mainframes would still be occupying a lot of space
5. Condition: If computer technology continues growing at the rate it has → Prediction: bubble memory will soon replace the chip

⭐ Key Takeaways

The most critical concepts from this lecture are the standard flowcharting symbols and their specific meanings: the terminal symbol (oval) for START/STOP, the parallelogram for input/output operations, the rectangle for processing, the diamond for decisions requiring yes/no answers, and arrows for showing flow direction. Flowcharting is a universal, language-independent step in programming that reveals a programmer's logical and analytical thinking. Two methods exist for creating flowcharts (freehand for temporary use, template for permanent records), and proper program documentation requires keeping the flowchart with the completed program and usage instructions. Flowcharts and condition-prediction relationships are closely linked, as decisions in flowcharts (diamonds) represent conditions whose outcomes predict what will happen next in the program.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the five standard flowcharting symbols, and what does each represent?
2. What are the two methods of creating a flowchart, and when would you use each one?
3. Why is flowcharting considered a language-independent step in programming?
4. What is program documentation, and why is it important for understanding a program?
5. In a condition-prediction relationship, what are the five levels of certainty and what expressions are used for each level?

📘 Lecture 22 — THE COMPOUND - COMPLEX Writing: Sentence Types

📖 Overview: This lecture shifts focus from reading comprehension to writing skills, introducing the fundamental rules of grammar, rhetoric, and composition. It explains how to classify sentences both by purpose/meaning and by structure, providing detailed instruction on simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. Mastering these sentence types is essential for producing clear, effective, and grammatically correct writing.

🗂️ Topics Covered

This lecture covers the three essential components of good writing: grammar (parts of speech, syntax, and special forms like participles, gerunds, infinitives, and relative adverbs), rhetoric (word choice and arrangement), and composition (structuring words into sentences, paragraphs, and longer units). It then provides an in-depth classification of sentences by purpose (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory) and by structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex), including definitions, examples, joining/dependent words, punctuation rules, and practice exercises for each type.

📝 Lecture Summary

The Compound - Complex Writing: Sentence Types

Writing is a learned skill that requires knowledge of three things: i) Rules of grammar-syntax, ii) Rhetoric (the choice of words and their effective arrangement), and iii) Composition (putting parts together to form a whole). Good writing depends on more than grammatical correctness; effective sentences require control over different sentence patterns. A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.

🔑 Definition — Grammar: deals with parts of speech, variations in word forms when used in different constructions, and the relationship between words within a sentence (syntax). 🔑 Definition — Rhetoric: deals with the choice of words and their effective arrangement. 🔑 Definition — Composition: the 'putting together' of parts to form a whole: words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, and paragraphs into longer units.

💡 Why this matters: Understanding the difference between grammar, rhetoric, and composition helps you see that writing is not just about being grammatically correct—it's about arranging words effectively for clear communication.

In addition to the 8 parts of speech (Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection), there are 4 kinds of words that combine two parts of speech into one:

🔑 Definition — Participle: a verb and adjective combined. e.g. The retired headmaster distributed the prizes. 🔑 Definition — Gerund: a verb and noun combined. e.g. She is thinking of leaving her job. 🔑 Definition — Infinitive: a verb and noun combined. e.g. She wishes to deposit the money. 🔑 Definition — Relative Adverb: partly an adverb and partly a conjunction. e.g. I was relieved when the program ended.

Sentences can be classified according to their purpose/meaning:

• Declarative: To make a statement, assertion or declaration. e.g. He is a teacher.
• Interrogative: To ask a question. e.g. What day is it?
• Imperative: To issue commands. e.g. Go in.
• Exclamatory: To utter exclamations. e.g. If only it would stop raining!
• Greetings/expressions: e.g. Good morning. Hello.

The Simple Sentence

Any sentence, however long or short, that has only one subject-verb combination and expresses a complete thought is a simple sentence. It consists of one subject and one verb, though it may have more than one subject or more than one verb, or even several subjects and verbs.

Examples:

• Sparks fly upwards. (one subject: Sparks, one verb: fly)
• The tired, dirty and footsore tourists straggled wearily across the bridge, up the hill, and finally into the rest house. (one subject: tourists, one verb: straggled, despite 20 words)
• More than one subject: Lamb and Hazlitt wrote charming essays.
• More than one verb: The children splashed and squealed in the stream.
• Several subjects and verbs: Every Saturday night, Shama, Salman and Minko go to the movies, eat at a Chinese restaurant and play cards at the gymkhana club. (3 subjects & 3 verbs)

📌 Example: "The tired, dirty and footsore tourists, straggled wearily across the bridge, up the hill, and finally into the rest house." — Even though this sentence has 20 words, it has only one subject (tourists) and one finite verb (straggled), so it is classified as a simple sentence.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is made up of two or more complete thoughts (independent clauses) joined by a comma and a joining word (coordinating conjunction). The joining words are: and (in addition), but (however), so (as a result), for (because), yet (however), or (shows alternatives), nor (shows a second negative statement).

Examples:

• Saima wants biryani for dinner, but she forgot to buy meat.
• His life was not an easy one, nor was it eventful.
• The driver failed to signal, and he went through a stop sign.
• I was very tired, but I still had two hours of assigned reading.
• The meal was not well cooked, so we sent it back to the kitchen.
• She works at home, for she wants to be with her two young children.
• My friend loves sewing, yet she decided to take up science in college.
• You can ride with us to the stadium, or you can go with someone else.
• Saad does not eat meat, nor does he eat fish.

The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence includes one independent clause (statement that can stand alone) and at least one dependent clause (statement that cannot stand alone). Dependent clauses begin with dependent words (also called subordinating conjunctions) and contain a subject and a verb.

Dependent clauses can function as:

• Adverbial: When the century began, there were many coffee houses in the city.
• Adjectival: Men who wanted to meet their friends visited these shops.
• Noun: We know that these gatherings led eventually to the formation of a new political party.

🔑 Definition — Dependent Words: words such as although, as, even if, after, because, before, when, while, since, until, wherever, that introduce dependent statements. Also known as subordinating conjunctions.

Punctuation rule: When a dependent clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, use a comma after it. When it comes at the end, no comma is needed.

• As the mad man made demands on the phone, police surrounded the building. (comma needed)
• Ghazala will not sell her old gramophone even if she is offered a large sum of money. (no comma)

Other dependent words include: after, although, as, because, before, even, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while.

📌 Example: "When the century began, there were many coffee houses in the city." — "When the century began" is a dependent clause (cannot stand alone), while "there were many coffee houses in the city" is an independent clause (can stand alone as a simple sentence).

Compound - Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence consists of a compound sentence (two or more independent clauses) and at least one dependent clause.

Examples:

1. The Rawal Lake was impressive, but Shahid thought that Lake Saiful Malook was really more beautiful than any other lake he had ever seen.
2. The crowd of labourers had been standing patiently in the water for three hours, and a great shout of relief arose when the rescuers finally appeared.

📌 Example: "When Bobby saw a rainbow he ran to get his camera and the rainbow disappeared." — This sentence has one dependent clause ("When Bobby saw a rainbow") and two independent clauses ("he ran to get his camera" / "the rainbow disappeared") joined by "and," making it compound-complex.

⭐ Key Takeaways

1. Sentences are classified by structure into four basic types: simple (one independent clause), compound (two or more independent clauses joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction), complex (one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses), and compound-complex (two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause).
2. A simple sentence can be long but still have only one subject-verb combination; it may also have multiple subjects and/or multiple verbs, but only one finite verb expresses the main action.
3. Compound sentences use joining words (and, but, so, for, yet, or, nor) with a comma; complex sentences use dependent words/subordinating conjunctions (although, because, when, while, etc.) and require a comma only when the dependent clause comes first.
4. Good writing requires knowledge of grammar (rules of syntax), rhetoric (word choice and arrangement), and composition (structure from words to paragraphs), and mastery of different sentence patterns is essential for effective written communication.
5. The ability to recognize and construct all four sentence types is fundamental for writing clear, varied, and sophisticated prose in academic, professional, and personal contexts.

🧠 Quick Revision Questions

1. What are the three essential components of good writing mentioned in this lecture?
2. How can you distinguish a simple sentence from a compound sentence? Provide an example of each.
3. What is the difference between a dependent clause and an independent clause in a complex sentence?
4. List four dependent words (subordinating conjunctions) and show how they create complex sentences.
5. How does a compound-complex sentence differ from a compound sentence? Write an original example of a compound-complex sentence.